What Good Is a Bed Bug Mattress Cover

Bed bugs are a pervasive pest that can find their way into any home by unwitting hosts. They can do this simply by hitching a ride in suitcases if you visit a hotel with an infestation, transferring onto your clothes from a movie theater seat, or traveling on visitors who come into your home. These bugs are  erroneously associated with pests that only live in filthy living conditions. In fact, they can live and breed anywhere, including inside clean, uncluttered homes. To protect your mattress from an infestation or to curb a mattress infestation that may have occurred, you can purchase a bed bug mattress encasement to trap the bugs inside the encasement or discourage bugs from making a permanent home in your bed. While mattress covers can provide some protection, however, you need to do much more to guarantee a bed-bug-free environment. What Is a Bed Bug? The common parasitic bed bug,  from the  cimicid family, feeds on human blood usually  during the nighttime hours when humans are sleeping. Bed bugs can be seen with the naked eye and are roughly the size of a lentil. They have round  brown or red bodies  and are easy to spot on white surfaces. They prefer to live close to their human food source and make their homes in beds. Between 85 and 90 percent of the bed bugs in an infested home are typically found on or within 15 feet of the bed. Bed bugs do bite; they actually saw into their hosts body and feed off their blood. While bed bugs dont carry disease, their bites can cause blisters and itching, particularly for people with allergies. Bed bugs are very hard to control. Once theyve infested a home, getting rid of them can be a challenge. The Benefits of Mattress Covers Most people are familiar with mattress covers. They  are usually designed like a bottom sheet and provide protection for the top of a mattress. Ordinary mattress covers do little or nothing to stop bed bugs. Mattress encasements, however, can help minimize an infestation.   A mattress encasement is a tightly-woven fabric case that surrounds your mattress and box spring. Once it is installed, bed bugs already in the mattress cannot escape or breed, and will eventually die inside the encasement. Any bed bugs left outside the encasement will be easy to spot and remove. They will find no creases or hiding places where they can breed. Mattress encasements not only repel and stifle bed bugs, but they can also provide a variety of other benefits. For example: A good mattress encasement can protect against dust mites and other pests as well as bed bugs.Most mattress encasements are waterproof, meaning that they will protect your mattress and box spring from spills and leaks.Mattress encasements can eliminate the risk of infestation if used with a new mattress and box spring. Buying Mattress Encasements Bed bug mattress encasements can be purchased for as little as $20, though you may wish to explore the more expensive options, as they are more likely to be reliable, sturdy, and bug-proof. Its possible to purchase a pesticide-treated encasement, but the potential health hazards outweigh the slight increase in protection from insects. Many pest control supply companies sell mattress encasements online. If you plan to purchase a bed bug mattress protector, make sure you choose one that is specifically designed for bed bugs. There are special features, such as bugproof zippers, different materials, and chemically-treated covers, that you can consider at the time of purchase. Do check the reviews to be sure youre purchasing a product that is reliable and well-made. Another consideration is noise, as some encasements are made of fabric that crinkles as you move in bed. This could interfere with your sleep. Even after you install your encasement, remember that adult  bed bugs  can live for well over a year without a blood meal. Leave the encasement on for at least that long or for the life of your mattress to be sure all resident bed bugs are dead and there are no new infestations of your mattress occur. Meanwhile, if your home is infested, you need to hire a pest management company to completely eradicate the bed bugs.

Video Game Console Industry - 1233 Words

1. How attractive is the video game console industry in 2008? In 2008 the video game industry is dominated by three major players and their respective gaming consoles. First of all theres Sony with its PlayStation 3 launched by the end of 2006. Then theres Microsoft with its Xbox 360, launched in the end of 2005; and finally Nintendo with the Wii in late 2006. These three players are struggling to gain market leadership in the game console industry. The video game industry, off from an uncertain start in 1972 has been marked by quick and frequent changes of fortune amongst the various players in the market. The market was characterized by rapid growth as well as unexpected down turns such as the one in 1983 where the industry lost 97%†¦show more content†¦Nintendos progressive growth and dominance with 8-bit NES and Segas subsequent leapfrog followed by Sonys rise and Segas fall with dreamcast, and ultimately Microsofts entry. Price of consoles has remained high over the years, with the only exception of Nintends low priced Wii console . Entry barriers have gradually increased with rising costs of developing a new console being affordable only to large companies and excluding smaller entrepreneurial firms. The customer base for this kind of industry is gradually expanding year after year as the gaming community now increasingly comprises those in the middle ages. Substitutors present a low to medium threat; however they are currently increasing in number, a part from PC gaming, the advent of iPad and other more specific portable consoles could constitute an important substitution threat. 3. What are Sonys strategic options for regaining industry leadership? As Kazuo Hirai, which option would you pursue? Sony must determine what kind of consumer audience it wants to target in the future and consequently whether it wants to: - Pursue the new segments of gamers that Nintendo unlocked with the Wii, or - Focus on current PlayStation as ultimate hub for living room by adding more features and technology. The first option seams appealing since Nintendo Wiis success is a clear example of the potential of the newShow MoreRelatedCase 11 - Video Game Consoles Industry Discussion1530 Words   |  7 PagesCompetition in Video Game Consoles: The State of the Battle for Supremacy in 2008 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the strategy-shaping business and economic characteristics of the console segment of the video game industry? What is the industry like? The video game industry is the economic sector involved with the development, marketing and sale of video games. It encompasses dozens of job disciplines and employs thousands of people worldwide. It includes video game consoles, game software, handheldRead MoreFive Forces Analysis of Video Game Console Industry Essay745 Words   |  3 PagesAnalysis of Video Game Console Industry Threat of Substitutes: The main substitute for a video game console would be a personal computer. They can both be used for playing different types of video games and be used for entertainment. The threat of this substitute edging out video game consoles is very low, because they are not completely similar. If anything, video game consoles are edging out personal computers in the gaming industry. The threat of substitutes in the video game is not veryRead MoreEssay on Week 5 â€Å"Case Analysis: Video Game Console Industry in 2012†1266 Words   |  6 Pages5 â€Å"Case Analysis: Video Game Console Industry in 2012† Grantham University BA490 Business Policy and Strategy Case Analysis: Video Game Console Industry in 2012 Page 1 Executive Summary The video game console industry is a very competitive segment. 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The video game industry has grown into a $20 billion dollar industry over the past ten years, and it only shows signs of growing larger in the years to come. In the United States alone, the market has grown considerably where 60% of all Americans play video games, 40% are women, and 60% of all gamers are between the ages of 25 through 44 years old (games-advertising.com)Read MoreThe Effects Of Video Games On The Video Game Industry Essay1238 Words   |  5 Pagesnetwork effects in the video game industry? The network effects in the video game industry are derived from the console system that is sold to consumers. If a company is able to increase penetration in this arena, though at-cost/ below-cost pricing or pull created through the development of desirable content, it can potentially lock in the added value of the video games sold for the system. Which is to say, the console locks-in the network effects in the industry and the games serve to reap the profitsRead MoreThe Effects Of Video Games On Pop Culture1116 Words   |  5 Pagesin today’s society. This example is, indeed, video games. When video games were first being introduced to the general public they weren’t all that exciting. Most gaming took place in arcades and most arcades didn’t have many game cabinets. However, all of this changed when the Atari 2600 was released. At the time, Atari was known for their home computers and their hit arcade game â€Å"Pong†. Though the Atari 2600 might not have been the first video game system, it was definitely the most successfulRead MoreTechnological Environment : Video Game Industry856 Words   |  4 Pagesc. Technological environment Video game industry is one of the so-called creative industries that experiences much disruptive innovation(DeFillippi 2014). Leading console manufacturers like Microsoft, Sony, Nintendo invest significantly in research and development. As a game publisher, Ludimus needs to keep up with console manufactures and be ware of innovations that could affect the industry as a whole. Disruptive innovation is defined as a process that product or service takes root initially inRead MoreVideo Games : Video Game Console1393 Words   |  6 PagesAlthough the first video games appeared in the 1950s,[1] they were played on massive computers connected to vector displays, not analog televisions. Ralph H. Baer conceived the idea of a home video game in 1951. In the late 1960s while working for Sanders Associates he created a series of video game console designs. One of these designs, which gained the nickname of the Brown Box, featured changeable game modes and was demonstrated to several TV manufactures ultimately leading to an agreement betweenRead MorePs4 vs Xbox One Essay936 Words   |  4 PagesPS4 vs xbox one Matthew Cobb A00467087 11/6/13  Ã‚   PS4 vs xbox one If youve never touched a video game controller in your life, but do have avid players in your household, you may be in for a bewildering month. Thats because were on the verge of what the gaming industry excitedly calls a new console generation. In short, the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, once the most powerful games machines on the planet are being replaced – the former by the Xbox One, the latter by the PlayStation 4

Supporting and Promoting Children and Young People’s Positive Free Essays

string(110) " offer for any good behaviour as this gives them a great feeling of doing well and a sense of accomplishment\." Natalie Cullen 19/11/12 Supporting and promoting Children and Young People’s positive behaviour Part 1: Behaviour Policy Charles Saer primary school’s behaviour policy is for all who are involved in the school. A few examples of who these people are pupils, staff, volunteers and school governors and even parents to name just a few. These rules are equal to all. We will write a custom essay sample on Supporting and Promoting Children and Young People’s Positive or any similar topic only for you Order Now This ensures all who attend the school know what behaviour is expected of them and what behaviour will not be tolerated. The policy gives a list of aims of what is hoped to be achieved by these rules being followed by everybody. The aim is for good behaviour to make a major contribution in providing a safe, pleasant enviroment for all to work and play in, to build and raise self-esteem, respect, honesty, truth, co-operation, kindness and tolerance of others. 1) This will make the children feel safe as with good and positive behaviour a safe, welcoming, enjoyable enviroment will be built for them to work and play in. ) By giving the children a safe positive enviroment where good behaviour is shown by all, it teaches the children respect, honesty, truth, co-operation, kindness and tolerance of others. This will make a positive contribution not only to school life but also society and their own futures. 3) By the children learning to behave in a good decent manner and being rewarded for this will also raise their self-esteem and self-worth as well as build their confidence. It teaches them to treat others with respect and kindness and to take other peoples feelings into account, thus helping their social and emotional skills. ) The children are able to learn the expectations of what is expected of them by rewarding their good behaviour and giving sanctions for any bad behaviour. This also will teach them that they are responsable for their own actions and bad behaviour choices have consequences. Code of Conduct The code of conduct is a set of short, simple, realistic rules for everyone to follow. These rules are again for everyone not only the children as it is also important that the adults lead by example and set good standards as they are infact role models for the children. Also read: Different Approaches to Promoting Wellbeing and Resilience The rules are useful in the day to day of school life. Charles Saer has 5 main rules of conduct: 1) We never shout or run in school 2) We always care for others and their property 3) We are always polite and do as we are told 4) We never fight or throw things 5) We always keep our school tidy Classes however may have their own rules for inside the classroom as different circumstances may arise for example ages of children, special needs etc. Although they will still reflect the behaviour of which is expected by the school. ) Children will feel safe by the code of conduct as it cleary states what is expected behaviour and what is not. So if a child experienced any type of bad behaviour towards them they know it will not be accepted and to inform a teacher of the issue. 2) The code of conduct will help the children to make a positive contribution towards helping the school achieve the safe, pleasant enviroment for all to work and play in, to build and raise self-esteem, respect, honest y, truth, co-operation, kindness and tolerance of others. ) By the children learning to behave in a good decent manner and being rewarded for this will also raise their self-esteem and self-worth as well as build their confidence. It teaches them to treat others with respect and kindness and to take other peoples feelings into account, thus helping their social and emotional skills. Also helping them to become well rounded members of society. 4) It helps the children to see rules are there to be followed and what is expected as good behaviour and what is unacceptable behaviour giving them expectations and limits. Rewards and Sanctions Rewards and Sanctions are basically ways of teaching the children when they have shown good behaviour when a reward is then given or bad behaviour when a sanction is given and will be seen to be fair. This will emphasise the diffrence between good and bad behaviour. Rewards at Charles Saer it is important to recognise and encourage good behaviour with some types of rewards such as: signs of approval, praise and encouragement, displays of work, comments in homework books, class points which can be banked for negotiated class treats, student of the week certificates and medals, tickers and badges, golden book ticket, silver awards, special mention in assembly, postcard/phonecall home. This way the childs confidence and self worth is boosted and they are more likely to keep up the good behaviour. Sanctions however when a child has shown bad behaviour a sanction must be given to that child to teach them it is not acceptable how they have behaved. Some types of sanctions that we use at Ch arles Saer are: eye contact (a mean look! ), adult disapproval, time out chair or isolation table in the classroom, child will be given a post it which the teacher will write e. . 5minutes in Mrs Smiths class and child will go to that class for given time, unacceptable behaviour will be discussed with child after lesson and not during, kept in at play time, serious misbehaviour will lead to involvment of the head teacher and maybe parents will also be asked to come in to school. 1) Children will be made to feel safe by gaining rewards for their good behaviour as it will give them a sense of achievment, recognition and self worth. ) Children will want to make a positive contribution into the school by ensuring they show good behaviour and try their best at all times to gain the rewards on offer for any good behaviour as this gives them a great feeling of doing well and a sense of accomplishment. You read "Supporting and Promoting Children and Young People’s Positive" in catego ry "Essay examples" 3) The reward system helps develop social and emotional skills as by the children following the simple rules of respect, honesty, truth, co-operation, kindness and tolerance of others, this also gives them the basics for good behaviour and being rewarded for that also helps them develop self esteem, self worth, confidence in themselves. ) Rewards and Sanctions help children to understand when expectations are met they are rewarded and praised. When these are not met there is consequences to their actions, teaching them to take responsiblity and that there are limits to which bad behaviour will not be accepted. Dealing with conflict and Inappropriate behaviour At Charles Saer school if a pupil is still presenting challenging behaviour after numerous attempts to try and intervene e. g. rewards, sanctions etc then there are some steps the staff will take to take the matter further. ) A childs parents will be contacted and asked to come in to discuss the situation 2) the next step if still no improvement would be to put the child on a report where his behaviour is monitored throughout the day and good and bad behaviour is recorded, the SENCO should be informed and given copies, 3) If after 4 weeks no improvement the the child should be placed on the SEN register and parents and authorities will discuss the issue. There are 3 stages and if no improvement then child will be referred to pupil referral services . Of course this type of continuing challenging behaviour is very unlikely to occur so serverly. More often than not a conflict or any sort of inappropriate behaviour a pupil displays that is serious can be resolved quickly by informing the parents and the head and class teacher being involved and some sort of plan and agreement as to what the course of action should be. 1) The other children at the school would feel safe knowing that when another child is behaving badly to a serious extent the staff are seen to be taking action against the bad behaviour and taking the matter very seriously, keeping to the their promise in the behaviour policy of ensuring a safe and enjoyable enviroment. ) If inappropriate behaviour is seen to be dealt with seriously then the other children are more likely to make a positive contribution by showing good behaviour and abidding to the rules of the school. 3) The child may be behaving inappropriatley due to their home life, so by first displaying bad behaviour and getting into trouble. They may then learn how to behave in a better way with the help of the staff which would help to develop that childs social and emotional skills that they probably wouldnt have learnt at home. 4) Rules and structure help children to understand what is accecptable behaviour and what is not. There has to be boundaries or the children wont be aware of what the limits are and will just keep seeing how far they can go. Anti-Bullying Bullying can be in the form of indirect, physical, verbal or cyber. Common forms of bullying are racial, sexuality, disability etc. Bullying has zero tolerance and will dealt with extreme seriousness. Once the staff have been informed and it is brought to their attention that bullying is taking place the head teacher will interview all concerned and will record the incident, class teachers and parents will be informed and if serious enough police will also be contacted. Sanctions such as warnings, detention, even exclusion will be given. The victim will recieve support to be able to talk about it. Monitoring of the situation will continue until the head feels it is no longer a threat. 1) Children no doubt feel a lot more supported and safer knowing there is action they can take if they are being bullied in or out of school. 2) Children can make a positive contribution by their behaviour by acting in kind and caring way to one another and learning to accept everyone and their diffrences. ) By teaching children to respect, have honesty, tell the truth, have co-operation, show kindness and to have tolerance of others, that there are people who are different in the world. We give them them knowledge to understand and be accepting of diffrences helping to develop their social and emotional skills 4) Understanding the expectations n limits of bullying is to always treat people kindly and the way you’d expect to be treated by others and to know bull ying is an extremley serious matter and will be dealt with serverly. Attendance Charles Saer’s Attendance policy is very similar to the behaviour policy, in that it aims to provide a welcoming and caring enviroment so the pupils can recieve a full time education to reach their full potential, there are incentives and rewards given to acknowledge the efforts of high attendance. Giving the pupils a sense of achievment and self worth. There is also rules to be followed, such as to be on time when school starts, what procedures to follow if off sick or have appointments etc, if too many absences then school will have to ask a family support to becoming involved. So like the behaviour policy there are rewards for good attendance n sanctions for bad attendance. 1) The children will feel safe by the attendance policy as yet again its setting out rules and structure very clearly. Which will make the children reassured knowing its the same rules, same expections, no confussion or uncertainty. 2) The children can make a positive contribution by keeping up a good attendance and geting to school on time. ) By keeping a good attendance this will develop their social and emotional skills because they will be in school socializing with other children and learning but also theyll be developing a sense of achievement, self worth. If awards are given this will highten their self esteem. It will also benefit them in later life when they have jobs. 4) The policy helps lay the expectations and limits out clearly of what the school expects to be good attendance and what will limit that high attendance rate they are hoping for. Part 2: It is benefical to encourage and reward positive behaviour as it shows the child that you have acknowledged their behaviour and paid attention to the effort made by them. It also gives them a feeling of pride and happyness to have their behaviour praised, even if the reward is just a smile or a simple â€Å"well done I’m really proud of you†. Rewarding and encouraging good behaviour gives the child confidence, self-esteem, self-worth, all the important things a person needs to become a self efficent adult in the future and make them feel like they have a purpose. How to cite Supporting and Promoting Children and Young People’s Positive, Essay examples

Services of the Gym-Free-Samples for Students-Myassignmenthelp

Questions: 1.Outline the Business or Records Systems that will be needed for your Business. 2.Develop Business or records system specifications and Performance Indicators to monitor and address system effectiveness including relevant Organisational policies, strategies and procedures. Answers: 1.Being in the business of gym requires to maintain a large amount of data about the people who are availing the membership, the amount of hours they are availing in the gym and the overall finances related to the same needs to be maintained. There is few basic records maintenance policy that every organization needs to follow. A correct recording system helps in managing the work more efficiently and also helps in developing better customer staff relationship. If proper system is not used then it might affect the overall financials of the company very badly. Care must be taken to ensure that before applying and implementing any such system proper market research must be done, expert opinion must be taken(Arnott, et al., 2017). Systems must always be installed on trial basis to record how is it functioning and the initial results must be monitored and compared with expectations. In this way there are little chances of any discrepancies occurring. There are various software available in the market that helps in marinating effective records in a gym. These systems are based on various points like there must not be issue in the management of the records and provide variety of services and owners can choose the best software that suits their need(Belton, 2017). The best software that will be suited for this new gym business would be Glofox. It is a very popular record maintaining system for gym, it is specially tailored made to suit the requirements of the gym, fitness studio and Pilates studio and variety of other fitness related centre. Thus for the gym business this will be best suited. This software will help in managing the variety of tasks like scheduling member management, billing reporting and check in. Thus a large number of manual tasks can be streamlined through the use of these applications. It also helps the gym members and the owners in contacting each other through the use of Glofox app. Thus it helps in making the task easy and can also be helpful for the people in maintain a proper schedule and proper check point of their schedule and thus they can manage it well(Kew Stredwick, 2017). This is how Glofox can help the business is flourishing and getting more customers that will help them in the long run to sustain a better c lient relationship. Along with the same software can be used to maintain the check in and checkout time of the customers to see how much time they are spending in the gym and whether or not they are paying for the same. In this way proper time tracking can be done and extra charges for working for more than stipulated time can be billed accordingly. There are various other software available but for a new growing business these two are the most important and the gym company must use the same(Trieu, 2017). 2.Maintenance of this software and their implementation requires certain policies and guidelines that the company needs to follow to make sure that there are no compliance issue and timely audit of the same is also required so that in the long run the system can effectively. The people who are involved in choosing the software implementing and regulating the same must be made aware of these policies and should make sure that proper application of the same is there. For financial reporting the ASIC's Regulatory index - financial reporting breaks down the various requirements that are needed for this system and to operate the same. Every company before installing the new system needs to follow the same. The company can appoint expert people who have good knowledge about the same so that there are no compliance issues with the same. This is the initial requirement that the company needs to take care of while installing the new system(Belton, 2017). The company also appoint a separate te am for doing market research and development to make sure that there are no loopholes in system administration, these system are very expensive and every company must invest wisely. The company also needs to provide training to the employees so that the company can function effectively and the new system can be implemented without any hindrances. Employees are the one who will be using the system so it is important that they know how to use the same, and make sure that if they face any issue timely help is provided through authorized sources(Arnott, et al., 2017). The customers who are availing the gym services must be made aware on how they can use the app. They can get the app installed on their smart phones and use it as and when needed. It will help them to solve a large number of problems and also avail the best services that the gym has to offer. The company can also employ expert people who can manage the accounts and get it audited as and when needed. The main aim of the gym supervisor is to make sure that these record maintaining systems are timely updated with all information being provided time and again(Kew Stredwick, 2017). If there are any discrepancy then the owners must be informed. It must also be seen that the system that are installed for recording the time of the people who are availing the services of the gym must be checked always on frequent basis to make sure that there are no discrepancy in the same. These are the few ways by which the business can grow and apply the system for recording of various transactions(Guraga i, et al., 2017). References Arnott, D., Lizama, F. Song, Y., 2017. Patterns of business intelligence systems use in organizations. Decision Support Systems, Volume 97, pp. 58-68. Belton, P., 2017. Competitive Strategy: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance. London: Macat International ltd. Guragai, B., Hunt, N., Neri, M. Taylor, E., 2017. Accounting Information Systems and Ethics Research: Review, Synthesis, and the Future. Journal of Information Systems: Summer 2017, 31(2), pp. 65-81. Kew, J. Stredwick, J., 2017. Business Environment: Managing in a Strategic Context. second ed. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Trieu, V., 2017. Getting value from Business Intelligence systems: A review and research agenda. Decision Support Systems, Volume 93, pp. 111-124.

Influence Of Realism On Literature Essays - Art Movements

Influence of Realism on Literature After World War I, American people and the authors among them were left disillusioned by the effects that war had on their society. America needed a literature that would explain what had happened and what was happening to their society. American writers turned to what is now known as modernism. The influence of 19th Century realism and naturalism and their truthful representation of American life and people was evident in post World War I modernism. This paper will try to prove this by presenting the basic ideas and of these literary genres, literary examples of each, and then make connections between the two literary movements. Realism Modernism not only depicted American society after World War I accurately and unbiasedly, but also tried to find the solutions brought upon by the suffering created by the war (Elliott 705). The realistic movement of the late 19th century saw authors accurately depict life and it's problems. Realists attempted to ?give a comprehensive picture of modern life? (Elliott 502) by presenting the entire picture. They did not try to give one view of life but instead attempted to show the different classes, manners, and stratification of life in America. Realists created this picture of America by combining a wide variety of ?details derived from observation and documentation...? to ?approach the norm of experience...? (3). Along with this technique, realists compared the ?objective or absolute existence? in America to that of the ?universal truths, or observed facts of life? (Harvey 12). In other words, realists objectively looked at American society and pointed out the aspects that it had in common with the general truths of existence. This realistic movement evolved as a result of many changes and transitions in American culture. In the late 1800's, the United States was experiencing ?swift growth and change? as a result of a changing economy, society, and culture because of an influx in the number of immigrants into America. Realists such as Henry James and William Dean Howells, two of the most prolific writers of the Nineteenth-century, used typical realistic methods to create an accurate depiction of changing American life. William Dean Howells, while opposing idealization, made his ?comic criticisms of society? (Bradley 114) by comparing American culture with those of other countries. In his ?comic? writings, Howells criticized American morality and ethics but still managed to accurately portray life as it happened. He attacked and attempted to resolve ?the moral difficulties of society by this rapid change.? (Elliott 505). He believed that novels should ?should present life as it is, not as it might be? (American Literature Compton's). In the process of doing this, Howells demonstrated how life shaped the characters of his novels and their own motives and inspirations. By concentrating on these characters' strengths as opposed to a strong plot, he thematically wrote of how life was more good than evil and, in return, wanted his literature to inspire more good. On the other hand, Henry James judged the world from a perspective ?...offered by society and history...? (704). He also separated himself from America to create an unbiased view of it as a ?spectator and analyst rather than recorder? (Spiller 169) of the American social structure. He wrote from a perspective that allowed him to contrast American society with that of Europe by contrasting the peoples' ideas. By contrasting social values and personal though about America in America, he presented to the people the differing motivational factors that stimulated the different social classes (Bradley 1143). Overall, these writers managed to very formally portray America as it was while adding their own criticisms about it in an attempt to stimulate change. The naturalist movement slowly developed with most of the same ideals as those of the realists in that it attempted to find life's truths. In contrast, Naturalists, extreme realists, saw the corrupt side of life and how environment ?deprived individuals of responsibility? (Elliott 514). Literary naturalism invited writers to examine human beings objectively, as a ?scientist studies nature? (?Am. Lit.? Compton's). In portraying ugliness and cruelty, the authors refrained from preaching about them; rather they left readers to draw their own conclusions about the life they presented. Generally, these authors took

Aircraft Solution Essays

Aircraft Solution Essays Aircraft Solution Essay Aircraft Solution Essay Aircraft Solutions is a well respected equipment and component fabrication company who ? provides a full spectrum design and implementation solutions to several industries which? includes; electronics, aerospace, commercial and the defense sectors. Aircraft Solutions employs ? a range of highly qualified professionals and houses an immense production plant, with an ? overall goal of providing high-quality solutions to accommodate specifications from a wide? range of customer demands. The following report is a security assessment on Aircraft Solutions? nd the primary objective in this assessment is to identify the existence of vulnerabilities present ? within the global context of Aircraft Solutions’ operations. An evaluation of the associated ? threats will be deduced, accompanied by the exposed weaknesses. This will be followed by an? analysis of the degree of risk present. Finally, there will be a focus on the consideration of the? consequences resulting from revealing of po tential threats. Assessment ? Hardware and policy will be the main focus of this investigation. It will be narrowed down more ? o hardware issues. It is very curious that there is no firewall implemented between the? commercial division and the Internet. The Defense Department must be routed through? Headquarters, but the Commercial department is connected straight to the Internet. This is a? significant vulnerability. The second weakness that will be examined is the security policy? stating router and firewall rule sets should be evaluated every two years. Such a time span? between rule-set evaluations is also a substantial liability to the continued and unimpeded? success of the organization. Further elaboration of the identified security vulnerabilities is ? presented. Hardware Vulnerabilities: The issue pertaining to Aircraft Solution’s hardware weakness is that of the lack of adequate? protection implemented between its Commercial Division and the rest of the world, connected to ? the Internet. In one view of AS’s network infrastructure, it even appears as though the CD must? transmit through the Internet in order to connect to Headquarters. The fact remains in either case ? that there is a significant increase of this division of AS operations to outside threat. The threat? ere is characterized by the inability of the CD to filter web traffic, which is effectively? equivalent to inviting the world in to see everything there is to see. (Northrop, T. 2010) In this ? case, this might include AS’s commercial client’s confidential information, classified divisional? statistics pertaining to budgets, deadlines, or contracts, confidential employee information, etc.? The vulnerability is the absence of a firewall. The threat is an open exposure to the uncertainties? of the Internet, to any number of automated or personalized attacks or attempts to exploit? ompany vital statistics and/or confidential or classified data. To help illustrate the risks of such a ? threat occurring, a typical Risk Matrix, which is commonly used by a number of companies and ? organizations, to include the military, will be utilized. This matrix was borrowed from the? Scottish Government’s, Risk Management website.? Because the possible consequences of the threat of company infiltration by malicious parties ? could result in not only devastating company-wide data leak but also the potential of client data? xploitation, modification, or even blackmail, the potential consequences would be marked ? ‘Extreme’. Because the likelihood is not only possible, but quite feasible between likely and certain (optimistically), this brings the level of risk to a near state of emergency, being ? characterized in the chart either by orange or red.? A possible worst-case scenario might involve a company’s data being hi-jacked. The severity of ? the event would be factored by all of the client’s data being exposed. This could lead to possible ? tampering with of client orders. Client devastation is to be expected on these kinds of situations. ?Information could be sold to a rival organization, which could then effectively be used to gain? considerable competitive advantage over AS. Several events could occur in these situations, it ? includes, either a tremendous loss of monetary assets and depleted of reputation, or worse yet,? the data could be exploited in such a way as to be manipulated for years undetected, leading to? countless losses on all fronts. Policy Vulnerability ?The vulnerability in company policy exists in its security directive stating ule sets for routers? and firewalls be evaluated at intervals of two years. Obviously, a lot can happen in two years to ? warrant a much more frequent evaluation timeline. There are many vendors who specialize in? constant rule-set monitoring, like RedSeal. net, which prevent the exploitation of vulnerabilities ? caused by outdated security configurations.? There is no definitive and quantitative rule for th e frequency of evaluation of rule-sets should be? conducted. Certain measurable changes within the company’s infrastructure should be expected? o change as a result of responding to economy situations and sales fluctuations. This should also ? be applied to rule-sets for router and firewall security configurations. Leaving rule-sets stagnant? for two years presents the risk of improperly configured security configurations for firewalls and ? routers due to the natural evolution of the company’s assets and network infrastructure. As a? result, the potential exists for malicious programming initiated by hackers to exploit these out? dated rule-sets, which could lead to disaster. Outdated rule-sets, with a little imagination, could? e likened to a bank that accumulated too much money to keep in their vault, and as a result,? decided to store it in the lobby instead. Perhaps not as blatantly drastic, but out dated rule sets? would potentially dictate the wrong rules at the wrong time for the wrong reason. The likelihood? of this vulnerability being exploited by hackers isn’t at first glance as high as the risk present in ? the last example, because there isn’t any way to know how much the company would change in ? two years. Feasibly, if there were no changes, than two years may suffice, but if one thing has? een consistent throughout the ages, it is change. If indeed significant change within two years? can be assumed, then the vulnerability grows with time, as does the company’s exposure to? threat, and the chances of such vulnerabilities being exploited would logically agree with a? ‘possible-to-likely’ rating on the risk matrix. The consequences of these potential vulnerabilities? being exploited could be numerous and severe, or it could amount to a disgruntled ex-employee? causing harm through unexpired access rights. In the worst case scenario, an intelligent IT ? mployee alerts a group of malicious persons of the weakness, and then the opportun e time is? waited for, when the most damage to the company, and/or benefit to the hacker might be caused.? This could amount to forced resignations, lost contracts, lawsuits, lost monetary assets, public ? image, and a shrunken client base, in short, disaster.?

Howl by Allen Ginsberg Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Howl by Allen Ginsberg - Essay Example The aforementioned individuals faced different dilemmas in their lives and chose a destructive pathway for them self neither suggested by the society nor forced by government. Thus, the poet cannot solely blame government and society for their indigence position. Throughout, the history many prominent personalities have started their carrier from the scratch, thus, the matter of destiny, aim and preference lies in ones hand. The poet has somehow justified their use of narcotics or marijuana as an escape route from poverty, unavailability of basic resources like warm water for bath and tattered clothes. Moreover, he has complained about the social boundaries prevailed in the later part of twentieth century, like tabooed culture of gay sex, obscenity in art and literature, sexual intercourse in public areas and freedom of expression to students in university and colleges for the sake of sanity. However, social norms are set to distinguish human apart from animal culture, especially in the matters of intercourse. The poet requires a freedom, which is prevailed in the twenty first century and has caused many root problems. For instance the usage of drug has

Book response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Book response - Essay Example The poems are easy and full of affective yearning, with which any reader can identify. Further, Dickman’s theme oriented composition makes it interesting for readers to discern crucial life lessons and get inspired to make amends where necessary. One predominant theme in All American Poem is â€Å"scraping for joy†, which this essay seeks to explore in greater detail. The first poem in Dickman’s collection, which explicitly addresses the theme of scraping for joy, is Slow Dance. The basic meaning of this phrase is that, people must strive to derive joy from every action they take or every experience they go through. Just like the poem title suggests, life should be a slow dance, where one soaks in every moment of happiness and avoids taking for granted the joyous aspects of life, however meager. Dickman’s poem is infused with a sense of pleasure and expectation, as one skims through the verse line by line. There is a promise of hope even in the most unexciting or demoralizing everyday activities. The poem is also emphatic on the need to eagerly grasp the relatively few moments of slow dancing with exquisite unfamiliar persons. Such acts in essence, constitute cheating life or coping with aspects of life that might seem too difficult or painful to handle. Dickman’s detailed description of ritual of slow dancing gives one, as a reader, insight into the need to live life easy and take in all the little joys. By drawing a reader’s attention to the purported mundane moments of life, and comparing these with the happy times people would enjoy if only they took the time, the poet is successfully convincing on the issue of scraping for joy. For instance, he points out mowing the lawn, making another person suffer, suffering from insomnia and even dying, as some of the negativities of life. The poet establishes juxtaposition of these negative aspects of life, with positive ones like the hope of an almond grove in pitch darkness,

CONFLICT OF LAWS IN BUSINESS & COMMERCE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

CONFLICT OF LAWS IN BUSINESS & COMMERCE - Essay Example This report will first provide a brief explanation of basic issues that arise in reference to the enforcement of foreign judgments in England and then apply them in the context of the four different instances where damages have been levied on Pulman Technics by foreign courts. A dispute over a foreign judgment may involve one of three elements (a) whether the Court which issued the judgment has the necessary jurisdiction (b) choice of law applicable in those judgments and (c) recognition and enforcement of judgments (Clarkson and Hill, 2007:131). Foreign judgments are recognized and given effect to by courts in other countries, because the recognition of foreign judgments is one of the essential elements of private international law on the basis of res judicata provisions. Through the application of the full faith and credit doctrine, courts do recognize the judgments delivered by other courts functioning within a competent jurisdiction. The Theory of obligation rests on the premise that if the original court’s assumption of jurisdiction was in order, then it should prima facie be recognizable in England.(Clarkson and Hill, 2007: 133) In the case of judgments that have been passed within countries that are a part of the Brussels Convention, such judgments would be enforceable in England, provided they are not repugnant to the principles of morality and fairness advocated under English law.In the case of foreign judgments passed in countries that are not a part of the Brussels Convention and where no reciprocal enforcement treaties exist, the action to enforce the judgment must be brought under common law rules. The matter of consent will be established if there is a contractual clause allowing jurisdiction to the foreign court, or if there is a voluntary appearance by the judgment-debtor. (Clarkson and Hill, 2007:136). A defendant must have been present in the foreign country where action is being brought against him or her and in the event,

Monoclonal Antibody Production using Animal Cell Culture

Monoclonal Antibody Production using Animal Cell Culture Introduction Monoclonal antibodies, in biomedical research, are used as reagents in diagnosis and treatment of diseases like cancer and infections [1]. It has been almost century their introduction, mAbs are still produced from splenocytes fused to myeloma cells [2]. The antibodies are produced by obtaining cell lines from animals immunized with substance to be studied. To produce the cell lines, B cells obtained from immunized mice are fused with myeloma (immortalized) cells [1][3]. For production of desired monoclonal antibodies, the cells should grow in one of the two ways: injecting the peritoneal cavity of mouse (known as in vivo method or mice ascites method) or by in vitro method (Tissue culture method). Further mouse ascites fluid or supernatant of tissue culture is processed and monoclonal antibody of desired concentration and purity is obtained (figure1) [1]. Mice ascites method is preferred as it is familiar, properly understood and extensively used in laboratories in comparison to tis sue culture method which is time consuming, expensive and laborious and ails to give required amount of antibodies[1][3]. Presently, twenty two monoclonal antibodies for transplantation, oncology, infectious, cardiovascular and chronic inflammatory disease have been approved by FDA [3]. Strict guidelines has been setup by IACUC for use of animal for mAb production which includes (i) use of animal is scientifically justified (ii) methods to be used which gives minimum pain to the animal[1]. Monoclonal antibody production (Past to Present) Mouse mAbs This technology was introduced in 1975, which works on generation of mouse hybridomas by fusion of B cells, obtained from immunized mice, and myeloma cells. But mAbs produced by this method have many limitations and is not preferred due to high immunogenicity in humans and due to production of human anti-mouse antibody which leads to their rapid clearance from patient’s body [3]. Chimeric mAbs These are produced by gene manipulation method in which constant regions of mouse Abs are replaced by human Abs. Like mouse mAbs, chimeric mAbs also leads to formation of human anti-mouse antibodies and leads to various immunogenicity in patients thus to make it potent in therapeutics further better understanding is required in their structure and function [3]. Humanized mAbs In this method, complementary determining regions (CDRs) are transferred to human IgG from mouse mAb. There is only 5-10% non-human content in humanized mAbs in comparison to 30% in chimeric mAbs [3]. Generation of mAbs Immunization of mice Screening of sera Spleen cell isolation Myeloma cells prep. Cell fusion (Tissue culture) Hybridoma screening Selecting cultures for cloning Mouse Feeder cells Cloning (limiting dilution) Clone isolation and expansion Cell freezing and recovery Supernatant production (from tissue culture media) mAbs purification and testing Figure1. Flowchart showing steps for production of monoclonal antibodies by tissue culture method [1]. Monoclonal Antibody Production Against various Diseases 5C3 mAb against Tumor Growth and Angiogenesis In this method, S100A4 was used for immunizing female Balb/cAnNHscl mice and mAbs were obtained from fused myeloma and spleen cells using PEG-1500. Hybridomas were selected on HAT medium and further screened for it reaction with S100A4 by ELISA. Clones were selected which were corresponding to 5C3 mAb. Cell culture was scaled up in humid conditions (air 94% and 6% CO2) at 37 °C temperature [4]. Supernatant (serum free) from hybidomas was obtained and purified on column containing protein A with the help of AKTA purifier FPLC system and elutions containing 5C3 mAbs were concentrated and filtered in PBS centrifuge Amicon Ultra-15 which has low binding Ultracel membrane and then quantifying mAbs at 280nm [5][6]. 2-4F mAb against Oxytetracycline in shrimps Oxytetracycline is used as medication feed in aquaculture [7], its overuse can lead to its accumulation in aquaculture food and its consumption then leads to serious health problems in sea food lovers. To prevent consumers from its harmful effects mAb 2-4F, highly sensitive and specific, were produced for detection of OTC in aquaculture food animals by ELISA. Hybridomas were obtained by standard protocol, by immunizing the female BABL/c mice with OTC-BSA, hybridomas were cultured and supernatants from culture were screened for antibodies using iELISA and antibodies were cloned by limiting dilution method to obtain monoclones then in serum free media these moloclones were cultured in 500 ml spinner flask [6][7]. Further mAbs were purified from this culture using protein G by affinity chromatography. The elute fractions were collected and its protein concentration was determined at 280nm spectometrically and mAb was filtered using cellulose acetate membrane (0.2  µm) and kept at -20à ‚ °C until used [8]. Human anti-human IL-21 monoclonal antibody. Interleukin-21 is a type I cytokine with four helical bundles that exerts effect on hematopoietic cells like NK cells, T and B lymphocytes. CD4+ T and NK T cells produce interleukin-2 cytokine, over expression of IL-2 lead to variety of autoimmune disorders. Genetically modified Kirin-Medarex mice were immunized with rhIL-21, immunogens were emulsified with P-adjuvant and CpG and recombinant mouse GM-CSF. Hybridomas obtained were cultured in IMDM containing 1x GlutMax, 1x Penicillin, 10% fetal clone serum and 10% Hybridoma Cloning Factor. Hybridomas were selected with IMDM in conjugation with HAT medium and cloning was carried out with 1x HT and distributed in 96 well Elisa plate and wells were examined microscopically for monoclonality and screened with phosphorylated-STAT3. Wells with positive results were distributed in 24 well cultures to obtained density 6105 cells/ml and then supernatant was collected and cells cryopreserved. Further media with human IgG was obtained and filter ed through 0.2 µm membrane and from this filtered media antibody protein was purified by combing Protein G Sepharose Affinity Chromatography Size Exclusion Chromatography and absorbance was taken at 280nm and further its quality was accessed by size exclusion HPLC [9]. mAbs L317, L363, L386 ÃŽ ±-galactosylceramide:CD1d complex The ÃŽ ±-galactosylceramide also known as KRN7000 is best studied ligand that binds to protein CD1d. KRN7000:mCD1d complex is easily recognized by iNKT cells and leads to number of proinflammatory and immunoregulatory functions. To understand the mechanism of antigen presentation to CD1d by iNKT cell three monoclonal antibodies L317, L3363, and L386 were produced. Primary immunogen was prepared with protein obtained from strain H37Ra of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (PPD) and it was conjugated with the complex KRN7000:CD1d. The complex KRN7000:mCD1d:PPD was studied by SDS-PAGE. Mice were first vaccinated with Mycobacterium bovis (BCG) then after 23 days mice were immunized with 5 µg KRN7000:CD1d:PPD complex in 1:1 PBS and Imject alum. At day 61 booster dose was given to mice, of the complex, with 7106 cells. Mice were then sacrificed and spleens dispersed PBS, cells were obtained and further washed with PBS and erythrocytes were lysed and cells were suspended in FBS/HEPES free DMEM [10][11]. The preparation was then mixed with myeloma cells and centrifuged and tubes with pellet were placed in water bath set at 40 °C and into this heated PEG was added followed by FBS/HEPES- free DMEM and then cells again centrifuged and re-suspended in DMEM. Hybridomas along with MRC-5 fibroblast feeder blast cells were plated in 96 well tissue culture plates. Supernatant from culture was screened and cloning of hybridomas carried out by limit dilution. Then 108 cells were inoculated in 2 liters roller bottles containing 500ml medium and OptiMAb supplement was added. MAbs were obtained by filtering of supernatant through protein G column chromatography [12]. Stx2f-1, Stx2f-3, Stx2f-4 mAb against Shiga toxin, a gastrointestinal disease Shiga Toxin 2 also designated as Stx2 is virulence causes gastrointestinal disease in humans’ world by food poisoning. It subtype Stx2f cannot be easily detected by immunological methods and thus three monoclonal antibodies specific to it were produced. Complete hybridoma media contains Iscove’s modified DMM with NaHCO3 and 1 Glutamax, containing fetal calf serum (heat inactivated) [13]. Female Balb/cJ mice were immunized with His-tagged Stx2f and hybridomas were obtained and screened for antibodies against Stx2f by ELISA and were further transferred to MPCM/HT/cHM media and diluted 500cells/ml and then the cells were grown in cHM media. Media containing antibody (400ml) was filtered through protein G column and elution were obtained in 0.1M glycine giving 5mg of purified antibody Stx2f [14][15]. Monoclonal antibody from EB66 Cell lines with enhanced ADCC activity EB66 cell lines are derived from embryonic stem cells of duck which can be genetically engineered and production of mAbs can be increased above 1g/L when grown in serum free media. EB66 have various other characteristic features like short doubling time, high cell density and unique metabolic profile with low accumulation of ammonium and lactate and low consumption of glutamine [16]. Further, EB66 cell lines used for production of mAbs has reduced fucose content with enhanced ADCC activity. EB66 cell lines produce chimeric IgG1 anti-cancer mAb against antigen anti-X by nucleofection. EB66 clones when grown in Erlenmeyer flask with standard fed batch culture produces 1.28g/L of IgG1 of cell density with 36 millions cells/ml. Further by accumulation of monoclonal antibodies in supernatant culture no degradation was observed in antibody production assessed by HPLC, SDS-PAGE and western blot. When the supernatant was purified with Protein-A HPLC showed 98% mAbs as monomers. Glycosylation profile of monoclonal antibodies was analyzed by MALDI-TOF-MS, enhanced activation of the monoclonal antibodies obtained from EB66 cell lines was analyzed by flow cytometry[16][17]. FDA Approved mAbs in market [18][19] Infliximab Remicade ® TNF Rituximab Rituxan ®, MabThera ® CD20 Trastazumab Herceptin ® HER2 Bevacizumab Avastin ® VEGF Adalimumab Humira ® TNF Cetuximab Erbitux ® EGFR Ranibizumab Lucentis ® VEGF Palivizumab Synagis ® RSV Tositumomab Bexxar ® CD20 Alemtuzumab Campath ® CD52 Certolizumab pegol Cimiza ® TNF Gemtuzumab ozogamicin Mylotarg ® CD33 Muromonab-CD3 Orthoclone Okt3 ® CD3 Efalizumab Raptciva ® CD11a Abciximab ReoPro ® GP IIb/IIIa Basiliximab Simulect ® CD25 Eculizumab Soliris ® C5 Natalizumab Tysabri ® a-4 integrin Panitumumab Vectibix ® EGFR Omalizumab Xolair ® IgE Daclizumab Zenapax ® CD25 Ibritumomab tiuxetan Zevalin ® CD20 Recent advances in mAbs production Engineered Monoclonal antibodies Advancement in mAb engenrreing has lead to transformation in this field which has lead to production of new drugs which as many useful characteristics like decreased immunogenicity, improved specifity along with stability and potency [18]. The replacements of murine as well as chimeric mAbs with full human mAbs are boon of this novel technology for example adalimumab, ranibizumab and cetrolizumab pegol. Adalimumab, the human mAb, is created by using phage display technology and now it is the top selling drug in the market. Cetrolizumab pegol has been engineered to increase its half-life by making changes in its Fab fragments [19]. Ranibizumab which is derived from bevacizumab wet AMD (age-related macular degeneration) and is considered as care indication standard. These new engineered mAbs have potential to compete with the drugs already in market and have bright future ahead [19][20]. Biosimalar Monoclonal antibodies Biosimilars are the copies of drugs whose patient has expired and now these drugs can be produ- -ced and manufactured by any company. But due to complex molecule used and then its approval from U.S makes it a complex process therefore most of the biotechnology companies are not in favor of production of biosimilars. Dr. Reddy in India has launched Reditux ® which is anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody and it is claimed, as the first biosimilar monoclonal antibody, by the company. In spite of approval of Reditux ® in India, it is thought that it would not have sufficient data that can fulfill the set standards of developed countries in terms of strict safety, efficacy and manufacturing standards[18][19][20]. Conclusion Monoclonal antibodies are expanding rapidly in pharmaceutical industries with already hundreds of candidates are under development and trials. Both cytotoxic and radiology methods are emerging to increase efficacy of the present therapeutic molecules. Moreover, advances have also been made to use mAbs in treatment of bacterial and viral infection. Biosimilars and bio-superiors are the next generation drugs which can be produced as most of the blockbuster monoclonal antibody are at verge to their patent expiry. The future of the monoclonal antibodies in therapeutics is bright and continued discovery, research and development in this field can take it to the heights that have not been achieved before. Abstract Monoclonal antibodies today have gained a breakthrough and are used in treatment of numbers of disease. Over 30% of the Engineered Monoclonal antibodies are under clinical trials. Moreover, different methods to generate human monoclonal antibodies are present today like generation of humanized and chimeric antibodies from genetic engineering of mouse antibodies, phage display method and transgenic mice development. Monoclonal antibodies are in great demand today and FDA has approved almost 22 mAbs till date and all these are commercially available in market. Biosilimars are also taking up the pace as most of the blockbuster mAbs are at verge of their patient expiry and Reditux ® developed by Dr. Reddy claimed as first biosimilar in India and is half the cost of Rituximab ®.

Anthropogenic Sources of Atmospheric Methane Essay -- Geology

Anthropogenic Sources of Atmospheric Methane Introduction The atmosphere has always contained the Greenhouse Gas methane. Along with carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and water vapor, methane helps to create the natural greenhouse effect. These gases trap some of the sun's energy and keep the Earth at a warm enough temperature to sustain life. If the occurrence of any of these gases in the atmosphere is increased, the natural greenhouse effect will intensify and further warm the Earth. Due to man's activities, the amount of atmospheric methane has more than doubled since pre-industrial times. It could double again by the year 2050. Today, 60 to 70% of methane releases come from human- related activities. Pie chart of Greenhouse Gases The Effect of Methane on Global Warming Methane is the second largest contributor to potential global warming (carbon dioxide being the first). Methane is an extremely powerful greenhouse gas, and it increases the greenhouse effect in two ways. Firstly, it absorbs infrared radiation well, making it twenty times more effective at trapping heat in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide. Secondly, increased amounts of methane increases the amount of water vapor in the stratosphere, further trapping heat. Another characteristic of methane relative to global warming is its staying power: the methane released today could still trap heat more than a decade from now. Its concentration in the atmosphere is rising annually. Landfills The largest source of methane emissions in the United States are landfills. Landfill gas, which is mainly composed of methane and carbon dioxide, is the result of the anaerobic decomposition of ... ... it and use it for our benefit. Sources: Pipkin. Recent Climate Change. http://madmonster.williams.edu/geol.103/04-Climates2.html, Fall 1996 EPA. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Methane. http://www.epa.gov/oppeoee1/globalwarming/inventory/1998-inv/methane.html, April 7, 1998 World Meteorological Organization. Scientists Support IPCC Global Warming Conclusion, Call for Quick Action. http://www.voyagepub.com/stories/0996cli2.htm , Summer 1996 EPA. Climate Change: Methane and other Greenhouse Gases. http://www.epa.gov/outreach/ghginfo/reports.htm Global Warming is Happening. http://www.enviroweb.org/edf/ishappening/ishappening_frameset.html. copyright 1997 Methane (CH4). http://global.phy.pdx.edu/sarah/CH4.html Michael Franklin. Trash Can Be Turned Into Energy Source. http://www.dfpress.com/science/0422972.html, April 1997

Psychological Measures in the Multicultural South African Context Essay

South Africa is deeply embedded in the roots of its past and so it inevitable that psychological assessment today would be greatly influenced by the history of our country. Foxcroft (1997) argued that there is a grave importance to understand the impact that South Africa’s past apartheid policies have had on the development and use of psychological testing. In her paper she addresses the impact of Apartheid policies on test development and use as well as linguistic, cultural and norm factors that would pose a threat to the fair, unbiased and ethical use and interpretation of psychological tests. This assignment will follow a similar outline, whereby the past and present of psychological assessment will be discussed in order to understand why the status of psychological assessment has not progressed to the level that was expected of post-apartheid South Africa. Finally, the laws or statutory controls that have been used to regulate measures will be discussed. It is important to firstly understand what psychological testing is and when it can be used. According to Krupenia, Mouton, Beuster and Makwe (2000), a psychological test is an â€Å"objective and standardized measure of a sample of behavior† (Setshedi, 2008). Tests must meet three important criteria; validity, reliability and standardization. According to Gadd and Phipps (as cited in Groth-Marnat, 2009), a standardised test is one which keeps the test items, administration, scoring, and interpretation procedures consistent thus allowing comparisons between scores. The aim of standardising tests can therefore be described as structuring tests so as to compare different persons’ scores (Gadd and Phipps, 2012). However, a problem arises due to the diverse and multicultural contexts of South Africa. It becomes difficult to yield fair and unbiased results without taking into consideration the language, culture and norms of the participants. The Employment Equity Act No. 55 of 1998 (Section 8) refers to psychological tests and assessment specifically and states that: â€Å"Psychological testing and other similar forms or assessments of an employee are prohibited unless the test or assessment that is being used: Has been scientifically shown to be valid and reliable, can be applied fairly to all employees and is not biased against any employee or group† (van de Vijver & Rothmann, 2004). However, this has not been fully achieved and psychological testing in South Africa faces many challenges. These challenges or pitfalls owe themselves to the ideologies of the past, namely, Apartheid. The status of psychological testing in South Africa today cannot be considered without reflecting on the past discriminatory laws and practices of apartheid. These laws discriminated politically and were based on demographics, that being race and social class. The policies and legislation passed during apartheid influenced the way in which test development was approached (Foxcroft, 2004). According to Foxcroft, 2004, the development of new culturally relevant tests has been minimal and the reason for this is that there is a â€Å"dire shortage of test development capacity in South Africa at present. † Joseph & van Lill (2008) state that these large inequalities perpetuated during Apartheid may be embedded in South Africa’s social and economic structures and as a result, variables such as language, race, socio-economic status, the environment and social and educational backgrounds serve as major challenges to the validity, reliability and standardisation of psychological testing. As was mentioned , â€Å"The practice of psychological testing in South Africa needs to be understood in terms of the impact that past apartheid political policies have had on test development and use† (Foxcroft, 1997). To understand this, it is important to reflect on the history of psychological assessment in South Africa. History of psychological assessment There is close relationship between science and politics in South African psychology (Claassen, 1995; Cooper, Nicholas, Seedat, & Statman, 1990; Nell, 1997) and so it is not surprising that the development of psychological tests during the apartheid era was shaped by the politics and ideologies of the time. Under the apartheid regime, there was segregation along racial lines of residential areas and education. Job policies ensured that certain jobs were reserved for certain groups, namely the white population. Claasen (1997) asserts that psychological testing was introduced to South Africa through the British and the development of psychological tests has followed closely to the patterns of tests in the USA. South African tests however, were developed in a context of unequal distribution of resources as a result of apartheid policies and were thus used to exploit black labour and deny black people access to education and economic resources, thereby perpetuating apartheid. It was therefore inevitable that psychological tests would follow the same kind of segregation along racial lines. As a result, assessment became an asset to the Apartheid regime and was reinforced by those scientists who believed in the Western concept of Intelligence (Foxcroft, 1997). Laher (2012) speaks of tests that were standardized for educated white South Africans but were administered to â€Å"illiterate, uneducated or poorly educated black South Africans† without investigating as whether the test was free of bias and suitability for the latter group of individuals. This, once again was done so as to use the results to justify that the white race was superior. Socio-political developments in the latter half of the 1980s led to the start of the abolition of racism advocated by apartheid. It later became apparent that there was a demand from the industrial and educational sectors of society, for common tests that would not be unfair or discriminatory against race or culture (Claassen, 1995). Test developers were then under a great deal of pressure to give consideration to test bias and to also develop unbiased psychometric tests that were not designed to place one group as superior to the other and that would not discriminate along racial lines (Claassen, 1995; Owen, 1991; van Eeden & Visser, 1992). However, it appears the transformation of test development and testing practices has made less progress in the 1990s than was expected and this can be pinned down to the challenges faced due to the â€Å"multicultural and multilingual context of South Africa† (Foxcroft, 2004), thus making the process of transformation more complex. The perception that psychological testing was unjust somewhat changed in the post-apartheid years, however, this transformation of test development and testing practices has made less progress than was expected because of the complexity of developing unbiased and fair testing practices (Foxcroft, 1997, pp. 30). Some of the major pitfalls associated with psychological assessment stems from the â€Å"dire shortage of test ability capacity in the country at the moment† (Foxcroft, 2004). There are very few tests that have been developed in SA, that account for the multicultural, multilingual and socio-economic aspects of the country. South Africa boasts eleven different official languages and an array of different cultures and norms. Although, language and culture are both linked they are completely different and thus pose individual challenges to the assessment process. Culture According to Hall and Maramba (2001), the role of culture in psychology in general, has been of a secondary nature and has acted as a â€Å"moderator or qualifier of theoretical propositions assumed to be universal in scope† (as cited in Gergen, Gulerce, Lock & Misra, 1996). Hall and Maramba (2001:12) further go on to say however, that there is an increasing awareness that European American psychological theories may be of limited relevance in non – European American contexts and thus by considering cultural issues, it can only help in making psychology more comprehensive and relevant. It is therefore important to understand the role that culture plays in the psychological assessment process. The fact that culture has been somewhat ignored in psychological testing becomes a major pitfall as according to Foxcroft (2004), â€Å"the South African society has a diversity of cultures in which appreciation for the culture of origin exists alongside variations in acculturation towards a Western norm† (as cited in Claassen, 1997). Culture-fairness of tests and applicability across different groups of people has emerged as some of the most important themes associated with the fair and ethical use and interpretation of tests (van der Merwe, 2002) and thus it is vital that these objectives are met. With this said, the onus is on the psychological assessment practitioner to use caution when interpreting results especially within the context of South Africa. Without measures with culturally relevant content and appropriate norms, fair testing practice may be compromised thus leading to test bias. The debate around norming The debate around the norming of psychological tests is a complex one. The question practitioners ask themselves is whether norms should be used or not. Some say it is a way of â€Å"addressing the inequities in cross-cultural applications of tests† (Paterson & Uys, 2005), others felt that creating different norms for different groups could be seen as discriminatory and almost comparable to apartheid practices (Paterson &Uys, 2005). A comment from a participant in the study done by Paterson and Uys (2005), put the whole debate into perspective and stated that, â€Å"You should not develop a norm on those people for whom the test does not work. That is a prerequisite: you can only norm on groups where your test is reliable enough to use† (Paterson & Uys, 2005). Foreign tests Psychological tests in South Africa are adaptations of foreign tests and from roughly the 1920s to the 1960s were developed specifically for the white population, not taking into consideration culture and language so as to further differentiate between the white and black population. This has become a major challenge for psychological assessment today as there are very few psychological tests that have been developed in South Africa, that take into account cultural biases, norms and language. The works of Joseph and van Lill (2008) looks at the history of this country and they suggest that there was a recognised demand for tests that were more suitable for the different race and language populations. This need or demand grew during the latter parts of the apartheid era, where there had been a need for change to the discriminatory policies and ideologies of the time. This all occurred during the 1980s to 1994. During this time there had been many studies, which served to prove bias in foreign tests being used in South Africa. The first thorough study of bias was by Owen (1986). He investigated test and item bias using various tests, for example, the Senior Aptitude Test, the Mechanical Insight Test and the Scholastic Proficiency Test (van de Vijver & Rothmann, 2004). He found that there were significant differences between the test scores of black and white participants. His conclusion was that understanding the reasons for these differences and counteracting them would be a major challenge. This proved to be true as even now, psychological test bias in terms of demographics and culture remains a major pitfall of the assessment process. Retief (1992) concluded that â€Å"personality tests seldom retain the level of reliability† and even loses some validity when used across cultures and the validity (Joseph & van Lill, 2008). Abrahams (1996) and Abrahams and Mauer (1999) concluded in another study that some tests such as the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) â€Å"could not be used across different racial groups, as the reliability was not acceptable for the black groups† (Joseph & van Lill, 2008). These results highlighted problems with the construct and item comparability of the test. From the conclusions made by the above psychologists, it is proposed that in order for an imported psychological test to be adopted in South Africa, it must be carefully researched, before it can be used within our South African context (Joseph & van Lill, 2008). Language From looking at the imported tests into South Africa, that being those imported from Europe and the US, it is evident that they have been developed and standardized in English. This poses a major problem in the South African context. Joseph and van Lill (2008) state that taking into account the history of South Africa’s language policies and differences in language proficiencies; it is evident that when a psychological test is administered in English, individuals from a different demographic group find difficulties in understanding the test. South Africa boasts eleven different official languages and not everyone in South Africa can speak fluent English. According to Joseph and van Lill (2008), this may have a negative influence on an individual’s performance on a test (Meiring, Van de Vijver & Rothmann, 2006). Thus, it is of great importance that language be considered when assessing the appropriateness of a psychological test in a multi-lingual context (Van de Vijver & Leung, 1997). There have been some tests that have been translated, for example the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), which has been translated for Setswana-speaking University students in an attempt to standardise the WCST. However, even though translations have been made, there appears to still be some problems as English words with multiple meanings cannot be adequately translated. English idioms cannot be expressed in another language without changing the entire sentence structure along with the underlying logic of the sentence—and when that happens standardization, and the guarantee of fairness it promises, is lost† (Richmond, n. d). The 16PF test used as an example to illustrate the use of foreign tests also serves as a good illustration here. Abrahams (2002) concluded that participants whose home langu age was neither English nor Afrikaans found that the items of the 16PF were more difficult to understand (Joseph & van Lill, 2008). Tests such as the General Scholastic Aptitude Test (GSAT); Ability, Processing of Information and Learning Battery (APIL-B) and Paper and Pencil Games (PPG) are the only psychological tests available today in all eleven official languages. From the cases above, it is clear to see that issues relating to standardization, norm development and cross-cultural relevance to test material are evidence that there are major pitfalls associated with psychological measures used in a multicultural South African context. Statutory Control It is important for certain measures and instruments in psychological assessment to be regulated by law, especially when it involves culture. If there are tests that do not take into account culture and norms, fair testing practices may be compromised (Foxcroft, 1997); thus the need for strict statutory control of psychological assessment. According to Mauer (2000) there are two pieces of legislation that regulate the assessment process. The first piece includes acts and regulations which take the form of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996), the Labour Relations Act (66 of 1995), and the Employment Equity Act (55 of 1998), (Mauer, 200). â€Å"These Acts deal with matters of individuals’ rights and with specific substantive issues† (Mauer, 2000). The second piece of legislation is the Health Professions Act (56 of 1974) in which â€Å"the scope of the profession of psychology, and the responsibilities and duties/functions of psychologists are addressed within the context of health care in the country† (Mauer, 2000). According to Mauer (2000), it is also important to note that the law restricts psychological assessment measures to only registered psychological professionals. The Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998, Section 8 (Government Gazette, 1998), stipulates that: â€Å"Psychological testing and other similar assessments are prohibited unless the test or assessment being used – (a) has been scientifically shown to be valid and reliable, (b) can be applied fairly to all employees; and (c) is not biased against any employee or group† (Mauer, 2000). Apart from legislation, there are also guidelines which help perpetuate fair and ethical practices. According to the International Test Commissions International Guidelines on Test Use (Version 2000) the following fair and ethical practices must be adhered to: â€Å"1). The appropriate, fair, professional, and ethical use of assessment measures and assessment results taking into account the needs and rights of those involved in the assessment process; 2). Ensuring that the assessment conducted closely matches the purpose to which the assessment result will be put; 3). Taking into account the broader social, cultural, and political context in which assessment is used and the ways in which such factors might affect assessment results, their interpretation, and the use to which they are put the test is valid for the purposes for which it is being used; 5). Appropriate norms are consulted; 6). Lastly, where tests that have been developed in other countries are concerned, appropriate research studies need to be undertaken to investigate whether the test is culturally biased and special care should be taken when interpreting the results of such tests† (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2001). From points three and six, it is evident that culture, norms and language hugely determine if a test will prove to be free of bias and is ethically fair. If these variables are not considered, the test is considered inappropriate and biased. This is a serious pitfall for psychological assessment in South Africa. Concluding remarks Ultimately, there are two questions to ask here. The first question is asked by van de Vijver and Rothmann (2004) and that is whether the profession of psychology in South Africa is prepared for the challenge that is implicit in the Equity Act. According to van de Vijver and Rothmann (2004), â€Å"the law is ahead of the daily practice† of psychological assessment and even now no country can live up to the expectations and demands proposed by the Act. To help achieve the propositions of the act, it has become one of the main goals of the assessment profession in South Africa to bring current practice and harmonize it with legal demands of the Equity Act (van de Vijver & Rothmann, 2004). This can be done by â€Å"developing new instruments and validating existing instruments for use in multicultural groups† (van de Vijver & Rothmann, 2004). The second question that is inherent in the argument around historical and current pitfalls is: can the current status of psychological assessment (which is proving less satisfactory than was expected) be attributed to the past racially discriminatory and unethical policies that made up apartheid? In my opinion, the past always shapes the present and future. Apartheid policies, although abolished have left a great impact on the social and economic structures of the country. According to Claassen (1995); Cooper, Nicholas, Seedat, & Statman (1990); Nell (1997), there is a close relationship between science and the politics of the time and thus it can be concluded that the development of psychological tests during the apartheid era was shaped by the politics and ideologies of the time. Today, without considering the culture, norms and language of the context in which we live, psychological tests may perpetuate the type of bias experienced by minority groups during the apartheid era. It is important for there to be new developments of psychological tests that take into account the multicultural and multilingual nature of South Africa and turn them into positives, instead of test that are rendered inappropriate and unethical.

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