Influence Of Realism On Literature Essays - Art Movements

Influence of Realism on Literature After World War I, American people and the authors among them were left disillusioned by the effects that war had on their society. America needed a literature that would explain what had happened and what was happening to their society. American writers turned to what is now known as modernism. The influence of 19th Century realism and naturalism and their truthful representation of American life and people was evident in post World War I modernism. This paper will try to prove this by presenting the basic ideas and of these literary genres, literary examples of each, and then make connections between the two literary movements. Realism Modernism not only depicted American society after World War I accurately and unbiasedly, but also tried to find the solutions brought upon by the suffering created by the war (Elliott 705). The realistic movement of the late 19th century saw authors accurately depict life and it's problems. Realists attempted to ?give a comprehensive picture of modern life? (Elliott 502) by presenting the entire picture. They did not try to give one view of life but instead attempted to show the different classes, manners, and stratification of life in America. Realists created this picture of America by combining a wide variety of ?details derived from observation and documentation...? to ?approach the norm of experience...? (3). Along with this technique, realists compared the ?objective or absolute existence? in America to that of the ?universal truths, or observed facts of life? (Harvey 12). In other words, realists objectively looked at American society and pointed out the aspects that it had in common with the general truths of existence. This realistic movement evolved as a result of many changes and transitions in American culture. In the late 1800's, the United States was experiencing ?swift growth and change? as a result of a changing economy, society, and culture because of an influx in the number of immigrants into America. Realists such as Henry James and William Dean Howells, two of the most prolific writers of the Nineteenth-century, used typical realistic methods to create an accurate depiction of changing American life. William Dean Howells, while opposing idealization, made his ?comic criticisms of society? (Bradley 114) by comparing American culture with those of other countries. In his ?comic? writings, Howells criticized American morality and ethics but still managed to accurately portray life as it happened. He attacked and attempted to resolve ?the moral difficulties of society by this rapid change.? (Elliott 505). He believed that novels should ?should present life as it is, not as it might be? (American Literature Compton's). In the process of doing this, Howells demonstrated how life shaped the characters of his novels and their own motives and inspirations. By concentrating on these characters' strengths as opposed to a strong plot, he thematically wrote of how life was more good than evil and, in return, wanted his literature to inspire more good. On the other hand, Henry James judged the world from a perspective ?...offered by society and history...? (704). He also separated himself from America to create an unbiased view of it as a ?spectator and analyst rather than recorder? (Spiller 169) of the American social structure. He wrote from a perspective that allowed him to contrast American society with that of Europe by contrasting the peoples' ideas. By contrasting social values and personal though about America in America, he presented to the people the differing motivational factors that stimulated the different social classes (Bradley 1143). Overall, these writers managed to very formally portray America as it was while adding their own criticisms about it in an attempt to stimulate change. The naturalist movement slowly developed with most of the same ideals as those of the realists in that it attempted to find life's truths. In contrast, Naturalists, extreme realists, saw the corrupt side of life and how environment ?deprived individuals of responsibility? (Elliott 514). Literary naturalism invited writers to examine human beings objectively, as a ?scientist studies nature? (?Am. Lit.? Compton's). In portraying ugliness and cruelty, the authors refrained from preaching about them; rather they left readers to draw their own conclusions about the life they presented. Generally, these authors took

Aircraft Solution Essays

Aircraft Solution Essays Aircraft Solution Essay Aircraft Solution Essay Aircraft Solutions is a well respected equipment and component fabrication company who ? provides a full spectrum design and implementation solutions to several industries which? includes; electronics, aerospace, commercial and the defense sectors. Aircraft Solutions employs ? a range of highly qualified professionals and houses an immense production plant, with an ? overall goal of providing high-quality solutions to accommodate specifications from a wide? range of customer demands. The following report is a security assessment on Aircraft Solutions? nd the primary objective in this assessment is to identify the existence of vulnerabilities present ? within the global context of Aircraft Solutions’ operations. An evaluation of the associated ? threats will be deduced, accompanied by the exposed weaknesses. This will be followed by an? analysis of the degree of risk present. Finally, there will be a focus on the consideration of the? consequences resulting from revealing of po tential threats. Assessment ? Hardware and policy will be the main focus of this investigation. It will be narrowed down more ? o hardware issues. It is very curious that there is no firewall implemented between the? commercial division and the Internet. The Defense Department must be routed through? Headquarters, but the Commercial department is connected straight to the Internet. This is a? significant vulnerability. The second weakness that will be examined is the security policy? stating router and firewall rule sets should be evaluated every two years. Such a time span? between rule-set evaluations is also a substantial liability to the continued and unimpeded? success of the organization. Further elaboration of the identified security vulnerabilities is ? presented. Hardware Vulnerabilities: The issue pertaining to Aircraft Solution’s hardware weakness is that of the lack of adequate? protection implemented between its Commercial Division and the rest of the world, connected to ? the Internet. In one view of AS’s network infrastructure, it even appears as though the CD must? transmit through the Internet in order to connect to Headquarters. The fact remains in either case ? that there is a significant increase of this division of AS operations to outside threat. The threat? ere is characterized by the inability of the CD to filter web traffic, which is effectively? equivalent to inviting the world in to see everything there is to see. (Northrop, T. 2010) In this ? case, this might include AS’s commercial client’s confidential information, classified divisional? statistics pertaining to budgets, deadlines, or contracts, confidential employee information, etc.? The vulnerability is the absence of a firewall. The threat is an open exposure to the uncertainties? of the Internet, to any number of automated or personalized attacks or attempts to exploit? ompany vital statistics and/or confidential or classified data. To help illustrate the risks of such a ? threat occurring, a typical Risk Matrix, which is commonly used by a number of companies and ? organizations, to include the military, will be utilized. This matrix was borrowed from the? Scottish Government’s, Risk Management website.? Because the possible consequences of the threat of company infiltration by malicious parties ? could result in not only devastating company-wide data leak but also the potential of client data? xploitation, modification, or even blackmail, the potential consequences would be marked ? ‘Extreme’. Because the likelihood is not only possible, but quite feasible between likely and certain (optimistically), this brings the level of risk to a near state of emergency, being ? characterized in the chart either by orange or red.? A possible worst-case scenario might involve a company’s data being hi-jacked. The severity of ? the event would be factored by all of the client’s data being exposed. This could lead to possible ? tampering with of client orders. Client devastation is to be expected on these kinds of situations. ?Information could be sold to a rival organization, which could then effectively be used to gain? considerable competitive advantage over AS. Several events could occur in these situations, it ? includes, either a tremendous loss of monetary assets and depleted of reputation, or worse yet,? the data could be exploited in such a way as to be manipulated for years undetected, leading to? countless losses on all fronts. Policy Vulnerability ?The vulnerability in company policy exists in its security directive stating ule sets for routers? and firewalls be evaluated at intervals of two years. Obviously, a lot can happen in two years to ? warrant a much more frequent evaluation timeline. There are many vendors who specialize in? constant rule-set monitoring, like RedSeal. net, which prevent the exploitation of vulnerabilities ? caused by outdated security configurations.? There is no definitive and quantitative rule for th e frequency of evaluation of rule-sets should be? conducted. Certain measurable changes within the company’s infrastructure should be expected? o change as a result of responding to economy situations and sales fluctuations. This should also ? be applied to rule-sets for router and firewall security configurations. Leaving rule-sets stagnant? for two years presents the risk of improperly configured security configurations for firewalls and ? routers due to the natural evolution of the company’s assets and network infrastructure. As a? result, the potential exists for malicious programming initiated by hackers to exploit these out? dated rule-sets, which could lead to disaster. Outdated rule-sets, with a little imagination, could? e likened to a bank that accumulated too much money to keep in their vault, and as a result,? decided to store it in the lobby instead. Perhaps not as blatantly drastic, but out dated rule sets? would potentially dictate the wrong rules at the wrong time for the wrong reason. The likelihood? of this vulnerability being exploited by hackers isn’t at first glance as high as the risk present in ? the last example, because there isn’t any way to know how much the company would change in ? two years. Feasibly, if there were no changes, than two years may suffice, but if one thing has? een consistent throughout the ages, it is change. If indeed significant change within two years? can be assumed, then the vulnerability grows with time, as does the company’s exposure to? threat, and the chances of such vulnerabilities being exploited would logically agree with a? ‘possible-to-likely’ rating on the risk matrix. The consequences of these potential vulnerabilities? being exploited could be numerous and severe, or it could amount to a disgruntled ex-employee? causing harm through unexpired access rights. In the worst case scenario, an intelligent IT ? mployee alerts a group of malicious persons of the weakness, and then the opportun e time is? waited for, when the most damage to the company, and/or benefit to the hacker might be caused.? This could amount to forced resignations, lost contracts, lawsuits, lost monetary assets, public ? image, and a shrunken client base, in short, disaster.?

Howl by Allen Ginsberg Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Howl by Allen Ginsberg - Essay Example The aforementioned individuals faced different dilemmas in their lives and chose a destructive pathway for them self neither suggested by the society nor forced by government. Thus, the poet cannot solely blame government and society for their indigence position. Throughout, the history many prominent personalities have started their carrier from the scratch, thus, the matter of destiny, aim and preference lies in ones hand. The poet has somehow justified their use of narcotics or marijuana as an escape route from poverty, unavailability of basic resources like warm water for bath and tattered clothes. Moreover, he has complained about the social boundaries prevailed in the later part of twentieth century, like tabooed culture of gay sex, obscenity in art and literature, sexual intercourse in public areas and freedom of expression to students in university and colleges for the sake of sanity. However, social norms are set to distinguish human apart from animal culture, especially in the matters of intercourse. The poet requires a freedom, which is prevailed in the twenty first century and has caused many root problems. For instance the usage of drug has

Book response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Book response - Essay Example The poems are easy and full of affective yearning, with which any reader can identify. Further, Dickman’s theme oriented composition makes it interesting for readers to discern crucial life lessons and get inspired to make amends where necessary. One predominant theme in All American Poem is â€Å"scraping for joy†, which this essay seeks to explore in greater detail. The first poem in Dickman’s collection, which explicitly addresses the theme of scraping for joy, is Slow Dance. The basic meaning of this phrase is that, people must strive to derive joy from every action they take or every experience they go through. Just like the poem title suggests, life should be a slow dance, where one soaks in every moment of happiness and avoids taking for granted the joyous aspects of life, however meager. Dickman’s poem is infused with a sense of pleasure and expectation, as one skims through the verse line by line. There is a promise of hope even in the most unexciting or demoralizing everyday activities. The poem is also emphatic on the need to eagerly grasp the relatively few moments of slow dancing with exquisite unfamiliar persons. Such acts in essence, constitute cheating life or coping with aspects of life that might seem too difficult or painful to handle. Dickman’s detailed description of ritual of slow dancing gives one, as a reader, insight into the need to live life easy and take in all the little joys. By drawing a reader’s attention to the purported mundane moments of life, and comparing these with the happy times people would enjoy if only they took the time, the poet is successfully convincing on the issue of scraping for joy. For instance, he points out mowing the lawn, making another person suffer, suffering from insomnia and even dying, as some of the negativities of life. The poet establishes juxtaposition of these negative aspects of life, with positive ones like the hope of an almond grove in pitch darkness,

CONFLICT OF LAWS IN BUSINESS & COMMERCE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

CONFLICT OF LAWS IN BUSINESS & COMMERCE - Essay Example This report will first provide a brief explanation of basic issues that arise in reference to the enforcement of foreign judgments in England and then apply them in the context of the four different instances where damages have been levied on Pulman Technics by foreign courts. A dispute over a foreign judgment may involve one of three elements (a) whether the Court which issued the judgment has the necessary jurisdiction (b) choice of law applicable in those judgments and (c) recognition and enforcement of judgments (Clarkson and Hill, 2007:131). Foreign judgments are recognized and given effect to by courts in other countries, because the recognition of foreign judgments is one of the essential elements of private international law on the basis of res judicata provisions. Through the application of the full faith and credit doctrine, courts do recognize the judgments delivered by other courts functioning within a competent jurisdiction. The Theory of obligation rests on the premise that if the original court’s assumption of jurisdiction was in order, then it should prima facie be recognizable in England.(Clarkson and Hill, 2007: 133) In the case of judgments that have been passed within countries that are a part of the Brussels Convention, such judgments would be enforceable in England, provided they are not repugnant to the principles of morality and fairness advocated under English law.In the case of foreign judgments passed in countries that are not a part of the Brussels Convention and where no reciprocal enforcement treaties exist, the action to enforce the judgment must be brought under common law rules. The matter of consent will be established if there is a contractual clause allowing jurisdiction to the foreign court, or if there is a voluntary appearance by the judgment-debtor. (Clarkson and Hill, 2007:136). A defendant must have been present in the foreign country where action is being brought against him or her and in the event,

Monoclonal Antibody Production using Animal Cell Culture

Monoclonal Antibody Production using Animal Cell Culture Introduction Monoclonal antibodies, in biomedical research, are used as reagents in diagnosis and treatment of diseases like cancer and infections [1]. It has been almost century their introduction, mAbs are still produced from splenocytes fused to myeloma cells [2]. The antibodies are produced by obtaining cell lines from animals immunized with substance to be studied. To produce the cell lines, B cells obtained from immunized mice are fused with myeloma (immortalized) cells [1][3]. For production of desired monoclonal antibodies, the cells should grow in one of the two ways: injecting the peritoneal cavity of mouse (known as in vivo method or mice ascites method) or by in vitro method (Tissue culture method). Further mouse ascites fluid or supernatant of tissue culture is processed and monoclonal antibody of desired concentration and purity is obtained (figure1) [1]. Mice ascites method is preferred as it is familiar, properly understood and extensively used in laboratories in comparison to tis sue culture method which is time consuming, expensive and laborious and ails to give required amount of antibodies[1][3]. Presently, twenty two monoclonal antibodies for transplantation, oncology, infectious, cardiovascular and chronic inflammatory disease have been approved by FDA [3]. Strict guidelines has been setup by IACUC for use of animal for mAb production which includes (i) use of animal is scientifically justified (ii) methods to be used which gives minimum pain to the animal[1]. Monoclonal antibody production (Past to Present) Mouse mAbs This technology was introduced in 1975, which works on generation of mouse hybridomas by fusion of B cells, obtained from immunized mice, and myeloma cells. But mAbs produced by this method have many limitations and is not preferred due to high immunogenicity in humans and due to production of human anti-mouse antibody which leads to their rapid clearance from patient’s body [3]. Chimeric mAbs These are produced by gene manipulation method in which constant regions of mouse Abs are replaced by human Abs. Like mouse mAbs, chimeric mAbs also leads to formation of human anti-mouse antibodies and leads to various immunogenicity in patients thus to make it potent in therapeutics further better understanding is required in their structure and function [3]. Humanized mAbs In this method, complementary determining regions (CDRs) are transferred to human IgG from mouse mAb. There is only 5-10% non-human content in humanized mAbs in comparison to 30% in chimeric mAbs [3]. Generation of mAbs Immunization of mice Screening of sera Spleen cell isolation Myeloma cells prep. Cell fusion (Tissue culture) Hybridoma screening Selecting cultures for cloning Mouse Feeder cells Cloning (limiting dilution) Clone isolation and expansion Cell freezing and recovery Supernatant production (from tissue culture media) mAbs purification and testing Figure1. Flowchart showing steps for production of monoclonal antibodies by tissue culture method [1]. Monoclonal Antibody Production Against various Diseases 5C3 mAb against Tumor Growth and Angiogenesis In this method, S100A4 was used for immunizing female Balb/cAnNHscl mice and mAbs were obtained from fused myeloma and spleen cells using PEG-1500. Hybridomas were selected on HAT medium and further screened for it reaction with S100A4 by ELISA. Clones were selected which were corresponding to 5C3 mAb. Cell culture was scaled up in humid conditions (air 94% and 6% CO2) at 37 °C temperature [4]. Supernatant (serum free) from hybidomas was obtained and purified on column containing protein A with the help of AKTA purifier FPLC system and elutions containing 5C3 mAbs were concentrated and filtered in PBS centrifuge Amicon Ultra-15 which has low binding Ultracel membrane and then quantifying mAbs at 280nm [5][6]. 2-4F mAb against Oxytetracycline in shrimps Oxytetracycline is used as medication feed in aquaculture [7], its overuse can lead to its accumulation in aquaculture food and its consumption then leads to serious health problems in sea food lovers. To prevent consumers from its harmful effects mAb 2-4F, highly sensitive and specific, were produced for detection of OTC in aquaculture food animals by ELISA. Hybridomas were obtained by standard protocol, by immunizing the female BABL/c mice with OTC-BSA, hybridomas were cultured and supernatants from culture were screened for antibodies using iELISA and antibodies were cloned by limiting dilution method to obtain monoclones then in serum free media these moloclones were cultured in 500 ml spinner flask [6][7]. Further mAbs were purified from this culture using protein G by affinity chromatography. The elute fractions were collected and its protein concentration was determined at 280nm spectometrically and mAb was filtered using cellulose acetate membrane (0.2  µm) and kept at -20à ‚ °C until used [8]. Human anti-human IL-21 monoclonal antibody. Interleukin-21 is a type I cytokine with four helical bundles that exerts effect on hematopoietic cells like NK cells, T and B lymphocytes. CD4+ T and NK T cells produce interleukin-2 cytokine, over expression of IL-2 lead to variety of autoimmune disorders. Genetically modified Kirin-Medarex mice were immunized with rhIL-21, immunogens were emulsified with P-adjuvant and CpG and recombinant mouse GM-CSF. Hybridomas obtained were cultured in IMDM containing 1x GlutMax, 1x Penicillin, 10% fetal clone serum and 10% Hybridoma Cloning Factor. Hybridomas were selected with IMDM in conjugation with HAT medium and cloning was carried out with 1x HT and distributed in 96 well Elisa plate and wells were examined microscopically for monoclonality and screened with phosphorylated-STAT3. Wells with positive results were distributed in 24 well cultures to obtained density 6105 cells/ml and then supernatant was collected and cells cryopreserved. Further media with human IgG was obtained and filter ed through 0.2 µm membrane and from this filtered media antibody protein was purified by combing Protein G Sepharose Affinity Chromatography Size Exclusion Chromatography and absorbance was taken at 280nm and further its quality was accessed by size exclusion HPLC [9]. mAbs L317, L363, L386 ÃŽ ±-galactosylceramide:CD1d complex The ÃŽ ±-galactosylceramide also known as KRN7000 is best studied ligand that binds to protein CD1d. KRN7000:mCD1d complex is easily recognized by iNKT cells and leads to number of proinflammatory and immunoregulatory functions. To understand the mechanism of antigen presentation to CD1d by iNKT cell three monoclonal antibodies L317, L3363, and L386 were produced. Primary immunogen was prepared with protein obtained from strain H37Ra of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (PPD) and it was conjugated with the complex KRN7000:CD1d. The complex KRN7000:mCD1d:PPD was studied by SDS-PAGE. Mice were first vaccinated with Mycobacterium bovis (BCG) then after 23 days mice were immunized with 5 µg KRN7000:CD1d:PPD complex in 1:1 PBS and Imject alum. At day 61 booster dose was given to mice, of the complex, with 7106 cells. Mice were then sacrificed and spleens dispersed PBS, cells were obtained and further washed with PBS and erythrocytes were lysed and cells were suspended in FBS/HEPES free DMEM [10][11]. The preparation was then mixed with myeloma cells and centrifuged and tubes with pellet were placed in water bath set at 40 °C and into this heated PEG was added followed by FBS/HEPES- free DMEM and then cells again centrifuged and re-suspended in DMEM. Hybridomas along with MRC-5 fibroblast feeder blast cells were plated in 96 well tissue culture plates. Supernatant from culture was screened and cloning of hybridomas carried out by limit dilution. Then 108 cells were inoculated in 2 liters roller bottles containing 500ml medium and OptiMAb supplement was added. MAbs were obtained by filtering of supernatant through protein G column chromatography [12]. Stx2f-1, Stx2f-3, Stx2f-4 mAb against Shiga toxin, a gastrointestinal disease Shiga Toxin 2 also designated as Stx2 is virulence causes gastrointestinal disease in humans’ world by food poisoning. It subtype Stx2f cannot be easily detected by immunological methods and thus three monoclonal antibodies specific to it were produced. Complete hybridoma media contains Iscove’s modified DMM with NaHCO3 and 1 Glutamax, containing fetal calf serum (heat inactivated) [13]. Female Balb/cJ mice were immunized with His-tagged Stx2f and hybridomas were obtained and screened for antibodies against Stx2f by ELISA and were further transferred to MPCM/HT/cHM media and diluted 500cells/ml and then the cells were grown in cHM media. Media containing antibody (400ml) was filtered through protein G column and elution were obtained in 0.1M glycine giving 5mg of purified antibody Stx2f [14][15]. Monoclonal antibody from EB66 Cell lines with enhanced ADCC activity EB66 cell lines are derived from embryonic stem cells of duck which can be genetically engineered and production of mAbs can be increased above 1g/L when grown in serum free media. EB66 have various other characteristic features like short doubling time, high cell density and unique metabolic profile with low accumulation of ammonium and lactate and low consumption of glutamine [16]. Further, EB66 cell lines used for production of mAbs has reduced fucose content with enhanced ADCC activity. EB66 cell lines produce chimeric IgG1 anti-cancer mAb against antigen anti-X by nucleofection. EB66 clones when grown in Erlenmeyer flask with standard fed batch culture produces 1.28g/L of IgG1 of cell density with 36 millions cells/ml. Further by accumulation of monoclonal antibodies in supernatant culture no degradation was observed in antibody production assessed by HPLC, SDS-PAGE and western blot. When the supernatant was purified with Protein-A HPLC showed 98% mAbs as monomers. Glycosylation profile of monoclonal antibodies was analyzed by MALDI-TOF-MS, enhanced activation of the monoclonal antibodies obtained from EB66 cell lines was analyzed by flow cytometry[16][17]. FDA Approved mAbs in market [18][19] Infliximab Remicade ® TNF Rituximab Rituxan ®, MabThera ® CD20 Trastazumab Herceptin ® HER2 Bevacizumab Avastin ® VEGF Adalimumab Humira ® TNF Cetuximab Erbitux ® EGFR Ranibizumab Lucentis ® VEGF Palivizumab Synagis ® RSV Tositumomab Bexxar ® CD20 Alemtuzumab Campath ® CD52 Certolizumab pegol Cimiza ® TNF Gemtuzumab ozogamicin Mylotarg ® CD33 Muromonab-CD3 Orthoclone Okt3 ® CD3 Efalizumab Raptciva ® CD11a Abciximab ReoPro ® GP IIb/IIIa Basiliximab Simulect ® CD25 Eculizumab Soliris ® C5 Natalizumab Tysabri ® a-4 integrin Panitumumab Vectibix ® EGFR Omalizumab Xolair ® IgE Daclizumab Zenapax ® CD25 Ibritumomab tiuxetan Zevalin ® CD20 Recent advances in mAbs production Engineered Monoclonal antibodies Advancement in mAb engenrreing has lead to transformation in this field which has lead to production of new drugs which as many useful characteristics like decreased immunogenicity, improved specifity along with stability and potency [18]. The replacements of murine as well as chimeric mAbs with full human mAbs are boon of this novel technology for example adalimumab, ranibizumab and cetrolizumab pegol. Adalimumab, the human mAb, is created by using phage display technology and now it is the top selling drug in the market. Cetrolizumab pegol has been engineered to increase its half-life by making changes in its Fab fragments [19]. Ranibizumab which is derived from bevacizumab wet AMD (age-related macular degeneration) and is considered as care indication standard. These new engineered mAbs have potential to compete with the drugs already in market and have bright future ahead [19][20]. Biosimalar Monoclonal antibodies Biosimilars are the copies of drugs whose patient has expired and now these drugs can be produ- -ced and manufactured by any company. But due to complex molecule used and then its approval from U.S makes it a complex process therefore most of the biotechnology companies are not in favor of production of biosimilars. Dr. Reddy in India has launched Reditux ® which is anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody and it is claimed, as the first biosimilar monoclonal antibody, by the company. In spite of approval of Reditux ® in India, it is thought that it would not have sufficient data that can fulfill the set standards of developed countries in terms of strict safety, efficacy and manufacturing standards[18][19][20]. Conclusion Monoclonal antibodies are expanding rapidly in pharmaceutical industries with already hundreds of candidates are under development and trials. Both cytotoxic and radiology methods are emerging to increase efficacy of the present therapeutic molecules. Moreover, advances have also been made to use mAbs in treatment of bacterial and viral infection. Biosimilars and bio-superiors are the next generation drugs which can be produced as most of the blockbuster monoclonal antibody are at verge to their patent expiry. The future of the monoclonal antibodies in therapeutics is bright and continued discovery, research and development in this field can take it to the heights that have not been achieved before. Abstract Monoclonal antibodies today have gained a breakthrough and are used in treatment of numbers of disease. Over 30% of the Engineered Monoclonal antibodies are under clinical trials. Moreover, different methods to generate human monoclonal antibodies are present today like generation of humanized and chimeric antibodies from genetic engineering of mouse antibodies, phage display method and transgenic mice development. Monoclonal antibodies are in great demand today and FDA has approved almost 22 mAbs till date and all these are commercially available in market. Biosilimars are also taking up the pace as most of the blockbuster mAbs are at verge of their patient expiry and Reditux ® developed by Dr. Reddy claimed as first biosimilar in India and is half the cost of Rituximab ®.

Anthropogenic Sources of Atmospheric Methane Essay -- Geology

Anthropogenic Sources of Atmospheric Methane Introduction The atmosphere has always contained the Greenhouse Gas methane. Along with carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and water vapor, methane helps to create the natural greenhouse effect. These gases trap some of the sun's energy and keep the Earth at a warm enough temperature to sustain life. If the occurrence of any of these gases in the atmosphere is increased, the natural greenhouse effect will intensify and further warm the Earth. Due to man's activities, the amount of atmospheric methane has more than doubled since pre-industrial times. It could double again by the year 2050. Today, 60 to 70% of methane releases come from human- related activities. Pie chart of Greenhouse Gases The Effect of Methane on Global Warming Methane is the second largest contributor to potential global warming (carbon dioxide being the first). Methane is an extremely powerful greenhouse gas, and it increases the greenhouse effect in two ways. Firstly, it absorbs infrared radiation well, making it twenty times more effective at trapping heat in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide. Secondly, increased amounts of methane increases the amount of water vapor in the stratosphere, further trapping heat. Another characteristic of methane relative to global warming is its staying power: the methane released today could still trap heat more than a decade from now. Its concentration in the atmosphere is rising annually. Landfills The largest source of methane emissions in the United States are landfills. Landfill gas, which is mainly composed of methane and carbon dioxide, is the result of the anaerobic decomposition of ... ... it and use it for our benefit. Sources: Pipkin. Recent Climate Change. http://madmonster.williams.edu/geol.103/04-Climates2.html, Fall 1996 EPA. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Methane. http://www.epa.gov/oppeoee1/globalwarming/inventory/1998-inv/methane.html, April 7, 1998 World Meteorological Organization. Scientists Support IPCC Global Warming Conclusion, Call for Quick Action. http://www.voyagepub.com/stories/0996cli2.htm , Summer 1996 EPA. Climate Change: Methane and other Greenhouse Gases. http://www.epa.gov/outreach/ghginfo/reports.htm Global Warming is Happening. http://www.enviroweb.org/edf/ishappening/ishappening_frameset.html. copyright 1997 Methane (CH4). http://global.phy.pdx.edu/sarah/CH4.html Michael Franklin. Trash Can Be Turned Into Energy Source. http://www.dfpress.com/science/0422972.html, April 1997

Psychological Measures in the Multicultural South African Context Essay

South Africa is deeply embedded in the roots of its past and so it inevitable that psychological assessment today would be greatly influenced by the history of our country. Foxcroft (1997) argued that there is a grave importance to understand the impact that South Africa’s past apartheid policies have had on the development and use of psychological testing. In her paper she addresses the impact of Apartheid policies on test development and use as well as linguistic, cultural and norm factors that would pose a threat to the fair, unbiased and ethical use and interpretation of psychological tests. This assignment will follow a similar outline, whereby the past and present of psychological assessment will be discussed in order to understand why the status of psychological assessment has not progressed to the level that was expected of post-apartheid South Africa. Finally, the laws or statutory controls that have been used to regulate measures will be discussed. It is important to firstly understand what psychological testing is and when it can be used. According to Krupenia, Mouton, Beuster and Makwe (2000), a psychological test is an â€Å"objective and standardized measure of a sample of behavior† (Setshedi, 2008). Tests must meet three important criteria; validity, reliability and standardization. According to Gadd and Phipps (as cited in Groth-Marnat, 2009), a standardised test is one which keeps the test items, administration, scoring, and interpretation procedures consistent thus allowing comparisons between scores. The aim of standardising tests can therefore be described as structuring tests so as to compare different persons’ scores (Gadd and Phipps, 2012). However, a problem arises due to the diverse and multicultural contexts of South Africa. It becomes difficult to yield fair and unbiased results without taking into consideration the language, culture and norms of the participants. The Employment Equity Act No. 55 of 1998 (Section 8) refers to psychological tests and assessment specifically and states that: â€Å"Psychological testing and other similar forms or assessments of an employee are prohibited unless the test or assessment that is being used: Has been scientifically shown to be valid and reliable, can be applied fairly to all employees and is not biased against any employee or group† (van de Vijver & Rothmann, 2004). However, this has not been fully achieved and psychological testing in South Africa faces many challenges. These challenges or pitfalls owe themselves to the ideologies of the past, namely, Apartheid. The status of psychological testing in South Africa today cannot be considered without reflecting on the past discriminatory laws and practices of apartheid. These laws discriminated politically and were based on demographics, that being race and social class. The policies and legislation passed during apartheid influenced the way in which test development was approached (Foxcroft, 2004). According to Foxcroft, 2004, the development of new culturally relevant tests has been minimal and the reason for this is that there is a â€Å"dire shortage of test development capacity in South Africa at present. † Joseph & van Lill (2008) state that these large inequalities perpetuated during Apartheid may be embedded in South Africa’s social and economic structures and as a result, variables such as language, race, socio-economic status, the environment and social and educational backgrounds serve as major challenges to the validity, reliability and standardisation of psychological testing. As was mentioned , â€Å"The practice of psychological testing in South Africa needs to be understood in terms of the impact that past apartheid political policies have had on test development and use† (Foxcroft, 1997). To understand this, it is important to reflect on the history of psychological assessment in South Africa. History of psychological assessment There is close relationship between science and politics in South African psychology (Claassen, 1995; Cooper, Nicholas, Seedat, & Statman, 1990; Nell, 1997) and so it is not surprising that the development of psychological tests during the apartheid era was shaped by the politics and ideologies of the time. Under the apartheid regime, there was segregation along racial lines of residential areas and education. Job policies ensured that certain jobs were reserved for certain groups, namely the white population. Claasen (1997) asserts that psychological testing was introduced to South Africa through the British and the development of psychological tests has followed closely to the patterns of tests in the USA. South African tests however, were developed in a context of unequal distribution of resources as a result of apartheid policies and were thus used to exploit black labour and deny black people access to education and economic resources, thereby perpetuating apartheid. It was therefore inevitable that psychological tests would follow the same kind of segregation along racial lines. As a result, assessment became an asset to the Apartheid regime and was reinforced by those scientists who believed in the Western concept of Intelligence (Foxcroft, 1997). Laher (2012) speaks of tests that were standardized for educated white South Africans but were administered to â€Å"illiterate, uneducated or poorly educated black South Africans† without investigating as whether the test was free of bias and suitability for the latter group of individuals. This, once again was done so as to use the results to justify that the white race was superior. Socio-political developments in the latter half of the 1980s led to the start of the abolition of racism advocated by apartheid. It later became apparent that there was a demand from the industrial and educational sectors of society, for common tests that would not be unfair or discriminatory against race or culture (Claassen, 1995). Test developers were then under a great deal of pressure to give consideration to test bias and to also develop unbiased psychometric tests that were not designed to place one group as superior to the other and that would not discriminate along racial lines (Claassen, 1995; Owen, 1991; van Eeden & Visser, 1992). However, it appears the transformation of test development and testing practices has made less progress in the 1990s than was expected and this can be pinned down to the challenges faced due to the â€Å"multicultural and multilingual context of South Africa† (Foxcroft, 2004), thus making the process of transformation more complex. The perception that psychological testing was unjust somewhat changed in the post-apartheid years, however, this transformation of test development and testing practices has made less progress than was expected because of the complexity of developing unbiased and fair testing practices (Foxcroft, 1997, pp. 30). Some of the major pitfalls associated with psychological assessment stems from the â€Å"dire shortage of test ability capacity in the country at the moment† (Foxcroft, 2004). There are very few tests that have been developed in SA, that account for the multicultural, multilingual and socio-economic aspects of the country. South Africa boasts eleven different official languages and an array of different cultures and norms. Although, language and culture are both linked they are completely different and thus pose individual challenges to the assessment process. Culture According to Hall and Maramba (2001), the role of culture in psychology in general, has been of a secondary nature and has acted as a â€Å"moderator or qualifier of theoretical propositions assumed to be universal in scope† (as cited in Gergen, Gulerce, Lock & Misra, 1996). Hall and Maramba (2001:12) further go on to say however, that there is an increasing awareness that European American psychological theories may be of limited relevance in non – European American contexts and thus by considering cultural issues, it can only help in making psychology more comprehensive and relevant. It is therefore important to understand the role that culture plays in the psychological assessment process. The fact that culture has been somewhat ignored in psychological testing becomes a major pitfall as according to Foxcroft (2004), â€Å"the South African society has a diversity of cultures in which appreciation for the culture of origin exists alongside variations in acculturation towards a Western norm† (as cited in Claassen, 1997). Culture-fairness of tests and applicability across different groups of people has emerged as some of the most important themes associated with the fair and ethical use and interpretation of tests (van der Merwe, 2002) and thus it is vital that these objectives are met. With this said, the onus is on the psychological assessment practitioner to use caution when interpreting results especially within the context of South Africa. Without measures with culturally relevant content and appropriate norms, fair testing practice may be compromised thus leading to test bias. The debate around norming The debate around the norming of psychological tests is a complex one. The question practitioners ask themselves is whether norms should be used or not. Some say it is a way of â€Å"addressing the inequities in cross-cultural applications of tests† (Paterson & Uys, 2005), others felt that creating different norms for different groups could be seen as discriminatory and almost comparable to apartheid practices (Paterson &Uys, 2005). A comment from a participant in the study done by Paterson and Uys (2005), put the whole debate into perspective and stated that, â€Å"You should not develop a norm on those people for whom the test does not work. That is a prerequisite: you can only norm on groups where your test is reliable enough to use† (Paterson & Uys, 2005). Foreign tests Psychological tests in South Africa are adaptations of foreign tests and from roughly the 1920s to the 1960s were developed specifically for the white population, not taking into consideration culture and language so as to further differentiate between the white and black population. This has become a major challenge for psychological assessment today as there are very few psychological tests that have been developed in South Africa, that take into account cultural biases, norms and language. The works of Joseph and van Lill (2008) looks at the history of this country and they suggest that there was a recognised demand for tests that were more suitable for the different race and language populations. This need or demand grew during the latter parts of the apartheid era, where there had been a need for change to the discriminatory policies and ideologies of the time. This all occurred during the 1980s to 1994. During this time there had been many studies, which served to prove bias in foreign tests being used in South Africa. The first thorough study of bias was by Owen (1986). He investigated test and item bias using various tests, for example, the Senior Aptitude Test, the Mechanical Insight Test and the Scholastic Proficiency Test (van de Vijver & Rothmann, 2004). He found that there were significant differences between the test scores of black and white participants. His conclusion was that understanding the reasons for these differences and counteracting them would be a major challenge. This proved to be true as even now, psychological test bias in terms of demographics and culture remains a major pitfall of the assessment process. Retief (1992) concluded that â€Å"personality tests seldom retain the level of reliability† and even loses some validity when used across cultures and the validity (Joseph & van Lill, 2008). Abrahams (1996) and Abrahams and Mauer (1999) concluded in another study that some tests such as the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) â€Å"could not be used across different racial groups, as the reliability was not acceptable for the black groups† (Joseph & van Lill, 2008). These results highlighted problems with the construct and item comparability of the test. From the conclusions made by the above psychologists, it is proposed that in order for an imported psychological test to be adopted in South Africa, it must be carefully researched, before it can be used within our South African context (Joseph & van Lill, 2008). Language From looking at the imported tests into South Africa, that being those imported from Europe and the US, it is evident that they have been developed and standardized in English. This poses a major problem in the South African context. Joseph and van Lill (2008) state that taking into account the history of South Africa’s language policies and differences in language proficiencies; it is evident that when a psychological test is administered in English, individuals from a different demographic group find difficulties in understanding the test. South Africa boasts eleven different official languages and not everyone in South Africa can speak fluent English. According to Joseph and van Lill (2008), this may have a negative influence on an individual’s performance on a test (Meiring, Van de Vijver & Rothmann, 2006). Thus, it is of great importance that language be considered when assessing the appropriateness of a psychological test in a multi-lingual context (Van de Vijver & Leung, 1997). There have been some tests that have been translated, for example the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), which has been translated for Setswana-speaking University students in an attempt to standardise the WCST. However, even though translations have been made, there appears to still be some problems as English words with multiple meanings cannot be adequately translated. English idioms cannot be expressed in another language without changing the entire sentence structure along with the underlying logic of the sentence—and when that happens standardization, and the guarantee of fairness it promises, is lost† (Richmond, n. d). The 16PF test used as an example to illustrate the use of foreign tests also serves as a good illustration here. Abrahams (2002) concluded that participants whose home langu age was neither English nor Afrikaans found that the items of the 16PF were more difficult to understand (Joseph & van Lill, 2008). Tests such as the General Scholastic Aptitude Test (GSAT); Ability, Processing of Information and Learning Battery (APIL-B) and Paper and Pencil Games (PPG) are the only psychological tests available today in all eleven official languages. From the cases above, it is clear to see that issues relating to standardization, norm development and cross-cultural relevance to test material are evidence that there are major pitfalls associated with psychological measures used in a multicultural South African context. Statutory Control It is important for certain measures and instruments in psychological assessment to be regulated by law, especially when it involves culture. If there are tests that do not take into account culture and norms, fair testing practices may be compromised (Foxcroft, 1997); thus the need for strict statutory control of psychological assessment. According to Mauer (2000) there are two pieces of legislation that regulate the assessment process. The first piece includes acts and regulations which take the form of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996), the Labour Relations Act (66 of 1995), and the Employment Equity Act (55 of 1998), (Mauer, 200). â€Å"These Acts deal with matters of individuals’ rights and with specific substantive issues† (Mauer, 2000). The second piece of legislation is the Health Professions Act (56 of 1974) in which â€Å"the scope of the profession of psychology, and the responsibilities and duties/functions of psychologists are addressed within the context of health care in the country† (Mauer, 2000). According to Mauer (2000), it is also important to note that the law restricts psychological assessment measures to only registered psychological professionals. The Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998, Section 8 (Government Gazette, 1998), stipulates that: â€Å"Psychological testing and other similar assessments are prohibited unless the test or assessment being used – (a) has been scientifically shown to be valid and reliable, (b) can be applied fairly to all employees; and (c) is not biased against any employee or group† (Mauer, 2000). Apart from legislation, there are also guidelines which help perpetuate fair and ethical practices. According to the International Test Commissions International Guidelines on Test Use (Version 2000) the following fair and ethical practices must be adhered to: â€Å"1). The appropriate, fair, professional, and ethical use of assessment measures and assessment results taking into account the needs and rights of those involved in the assessment process; 2). Ensuring that the assessment conducted closely matches the purpose to which the assessment result will be put; 3). Taking into account the broader social, cultural, and political context in which assessment is used and the ways in which such factors might affect assessment results, their interpretation, and the use to which they are put the test is valid for the purposes for which it is being used; 5). Appropriate norms are consulted; 6). Lastly, where tests that have been developed in other countries are concerned, appropriate research studies need to be undertaken to investigate whether the test is culturally biased and special care should be taken when interpreting the results of such tests† (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2001). From points three and six, it is evident that culture, norms and language hugely determine if a test will prove to be free of bias and is ethically fair. If these variables are not considered, the test is considered inappropriate and biased. This is a serious pitfall for psychological assessment in South Africa. Concluding remarks Ultimately, there are two questions to ask here. The first question is asked by van de Vijver and Rothmann (2004) and that is whether the profession of psychology in South Africa is prepared for the challenge that is implicit in the Equity Act. According to van de Vijver and Rothmann (2004), â€Å"the law is ahead of the daily practice† of psychological assessment and even now no country can live up to the expectations and demands proposed by the Act. To help achieve the propositions of the act, it has become one of the main goals of the assessment profession in South Africa to bring current practice and harmonize it with legal demands of the Equity Act (van de Vijver & Rothmann, 2004). This can be done by â€Å"developing new instruments and validating existing instruments for use in multicultural groups† (van de Vijver & Rothmann, 2004). The second question that is inherent in the argument around historical and current pitfalls is: can the current status of psychological assessment (which is proving less satisfactory than was expected) be attributed to the past racially discriminatory and unethical policies that made up apartheid? In my opinion, the past always shapes the present and future. Apartheid policies, although abolished have left a great impact on the social and economic structures of the country. According to Claassen (1995); Cooper, Nicholas, Seedat, & Statman (1990); Nell (1997), there is a close relationship between science and the politics of the time and thus it can be concluded that the development of psychological tests during the apartheid era was shaped by the politics and ideologies of the time. Today, without considering the culture, norms and language of the context in which we live, psychological tests may perpetuate the type of bias experienced by minority groups during the apartheid era. It is important for there to be new developments of psychological tests that take into account the multicultural and multilingual nature of South Africa and turn them into positives, instead of test that are rendered inappropriate and unethical.

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